2004

ME 445
INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

MEASUREMENT,
ANALYSIS,
&
ACTUATION

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In an integrated manufacturing environment,

information is gathered through computer
networks to make decisions on time.

Among the information to be gathered is the

measurement and sensing of physical objects
and events.

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Typical situations are:

Computer control of processes requires analog

input/outputs as well as digital input/output.
Programmable logic controllers (PLC) require
information to produce the required output control
signal.

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CNC machine tool need to sense the position of the

tool to follows the path instructed by the program.

Adaptive control of machine tools requires that

conditions can be sensed to perform adaptive
reaction.
A shop floor control system assumes that on-line
information can be gathered in real time on which
timely decisions can be based.
Manufacturing cell controller requires information
on the sequence of operations.

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All these situations assume that control

follows the sequence of
1. sense current conditions in a process,

2. analyze those conditions,

3. effect conditions through changes to the
process.

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In turn, this assumes that the

conditions can be detected and the
information can be transmitted to
the analysis device.
Once the decision is made the
decision should be executed by
some sort of actuators.

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EXAMPLE:
Consider the necessary
information that must be obtained
in a CNC machining center
(milling machine) and required
actuation to perform the functions
of the center:

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1. dc motors provide the motion along axes

2. tachometers sense the speed of the axis
motors
3. resolver measures axis motor shaft position

4. ac motors provide motion to the spindle

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5. limit switches sense when the milling table

isapproaching its maximum allowable bounds
for preventing overtravel

6. stepping motor positions the tool exchanger

7. tactile probe measures the dimensions of
the workpiece

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Sensing of physical conditions is

obtained by using
sensors

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What is a Sensor?
A sensor is a device that
receives a signal or
stimulus and responds
with an electrical signal.

Main Characteristics of Sensors

Sensitivity
Sensitivity Error
Linearity
Range
Accuracy
Resolution
Precision
Dynamic Range
Hysteresis
Response time

Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the sensor is defined
as the slope of the output characteristic
curve or, more generally, the

minimum input of physical parameter

that will create a detectable output
change.

Range

The range of the sensor is the

maximum and minimum values
of applied parameter that can be
measured.

Accuracy
The accuracy of the sensor is the
maximum difference that will exist
between the actual value (which
must be measured by a primary or
good secondary standard) and the
indicated value at the output of the
sensor

Resolution
This specification is the smallest
detectable
incremental change of input
parameter that
can be detected in the output
signal

Precision
The concept of precision refers to the
degree of
reproducibility of a measurement

Hysterisis
A sensor should be capable of
following the changes of the input
parameter
regardless of which direction the
change is made;
hysteresis is the measure of this
property

Response
Time
Time required for a sensor output to
change from its previous state to a
final settled value
within a tolerance band of the correct
new value

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Sensing and measurements may be broken

down into four categories:
1. Object detection
2. Object identification
3. Condition detection
4. Sensing for machines and robots

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Object detection:
a) Limit switches:
A limit switch has on/off
characteristics.
It changes the position automatically
when an object forces closure of the
switch contact

 The limit switch may be pressuresensitive, so that an object on a

conveyor will close the contacts
just by its own weight
Limit switches can be:
normally closed (NC)
normally open (NO)

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Normally Opened NO

Normally Closed NC

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b) Photoelectric Sensors:
A typical photoelectric sensor
provides a voltage of 10 volts DC, if
a light beam is not interrupted by
some objects.
If the beam is interrupted, then no
voltage is provided. Thus the voltage
is the equivalent of an on/off switch.

There are three possible models

for photoelectric sensors:
1. Through scanning
2. Retro-reflective scanning
3. Diffuse (proximity) scanning

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An important characteristic to be
noted when considering
photoelectric sensing is
hysteresis, which the percent of
the received light beam that must
be broken to cause an on or
off condition.

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A typical hysteresis has 10% blocked for an

on condition and 95% unblocked for an
off state. When part blocks 10% of the
through beam, the sensor output will change
the state. When the part has moved a
sufficient distance to unblock 95% of the light
beam, the sensor output will revert back to its
original state.

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This prevents the possibility of

multiple sensings if the part
vibrates while moving through
the beam.

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c) Proximity Sensing:
Proximity detectors are electrical
or electronic sensors that respond
to the presence of a material.

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The major categories are:

inductive:
for detection of
steel
chrome-nickel
stainless steel
brass
aluminum
copper parts

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magnetic:
for the detection of ferrous materials
capacitive:
for detection of
steel
water
wood
glass
plastics

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Object Identification:

1. Bar codes
2. Magnetic stripes
3. Camera with pattern recognition software
4. Radiofrequency (RF) devices
(transponders)
5. Optical Character Reading (OCR)
6. Voice Recognition System (VRS)

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Measurement of Conditions:
To measure the environmental conditions
transducers are used. A transducer inputs one
form of energy or characteristics and has an
output a form of energy or characteristic that
is different from the input.

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Linear displacement measurements:

Strain gage
Linear potentiometer
Linear encoder
Capacitive transducer
LVDT (linear voltage differential transformer)

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LVDT (linear variable differential tranformer)

is a transducer for converting positional
information into an electrical signal. It is
wound as a transformer with a single primary
and two secondary wound around a
cylindirical bobin. A movable core is
positioned inside the windings and it is the
movement of this core which is measured

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Angular displacement
measurements:
Strain gage
Angular potentiometer
Rotary encoder
Capacitor

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Force and pressure measurements:

Diaphragm-strain gage
Strain gage
Bellow-potentiometer
Piezo-electric
LVDT (linear voltage differential
transformer)

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Temperature measurements:
Thermocouple
Optical pyrometer

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Machine Tool Sensing:

The most important sensing required in a
machine tool is the position of the tool.
Therefore the position transducers determine
the accuracy of a machine tool.

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Part Measurement:
Other than the positioning of the tool, the
positioning system of the machine tools may
be used to check the dimension of the
machined part and the amount of the tool wear
by utilizing a tactile probe.

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Linear array: Parallel light beams are emitted

from one side of the object to be measured to
a photo optical diode array that is mounted on
the objects opposite side. Diameters are
measured by the number of array elements
that are blocked. 1 mm resolution may be
possible.

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Tool wear measurement:

Tactile probe
Force measurement on the tool

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Robot Sensing:

Tactile sensing
Force sensing