ENERGY CONCEPTS

( Thermal energy in particular )

Jenendra R. Bohra
Dip & B.Tech Chem. Engg.
 Mechanical
Electricity
Def :-
 Energy is required to do some work
and work is to transfer of energy
from one form to another Sound
Nuclear Energy
Energy
 Practical Use Of Energy
 Exciting Our Muscles

 By Using Electricity

 By Using Mechanical
 UNIS OF ENERGY
 HEAT:J/S or Watt
 ELECTRICITY: ampere or KWH
 MECHANICAL ENERGY : H.P
1 H.P = 746W
 NUCLEAR ENERGY: eV (electron volt)
 SOUND ENERGY : Webber
FREQUENCY :Hz
 Work Done

 Work = Force * Displacement

(w) (F) (S)
NEWTON*METER
kgf* m
 +Ve Evolution Of Energy
-Work done on system
 -Ve Dissociation Of Energy
-Work done by system
 Potential Energy
 Potential energy is stored energy or
energy a body posses on account of
its height (gravitational)
 Chemical energy
 1) Chemical energy – stored in bond
of molecules or atoms
 e.g. Biomass, NaCl, Propane, coal.
  when they burn they will give out
energy .
 Nuclear energy
 Nuclear energy –
There is a lot of
energy in the nucleus
of an atom. If the
particle in nucleus
are separated lot of
energy is released.
 e.g. Uranium atom,
fusion in terms of
chemical language.
 
 Gravitational energy
Gravitational energy – It is
energy by virtue of place
or position. Water in a
reservoir behind a hydro
power dam is an example
of gravitational energy.
When water is released to
spin the turbines, energy is
released.
 Stored mechanical energy
Mechanical energy can
be stored in objects by
applications of force.
Compressed springs
and stretched rubber
bands are examples of
mechanical energy. As
stretch or forced is
released energy is
given out.
e.g. Old watches
 Kinetic Energy
Energy in motion

Of wave

Of Electron

Atoms or molecules of
substances
 Radiant energy
It is electromagnetic
energy that travel in
transverse waves. It
includes visible light, X
rays gamma rays and
radio waves. Solar
energy is also an
example of radiant
energy
 Thermal energy

Thermal energy (heat) is energy which is in transit.

Part of it is internal energy which is bound in
subs and part of it is available for work external
work. Additional of both in terms of
thermodynamics called enthalpy (H).
 Thermodynamically we write
 H = U + PdV
Enthalpy = Internal Energy + heat available for
doing work
 Motion
Movement of objects from one place
to another is motion. Wind and
hydropower are examples of motion.
 Sound
Sound is movement of energy through
subs in form of longitudinal waves.
 Electrical energy
Electrical energy – is the movement of
electrons lightning and electricity are
examples of electrical energy.
 
 Energy Conservation
 As a fundamental law of conservation
of energy of Thermodynamics. Energy
cannot be lost but can be converted
from one form to other form.
 As already mentioned energy is
ability to do work of moving
something, warming something,
lighting something.
 7 1
Electricity power
Oil burns to
lights the
Bulb Generate heat
2
6 Heat
Generator Boils
Produces Water
electricity
3
5
Water
Turbines turns
electric 4 Turns
generator Steam To Steam
Turns
Turbines
* More the number of conversation stages ,lesser the
overall energy efficiency.
 Energy Can Be Graded As
High grade energy Low Grade Energy

•electrical energy •Can do work but it is

concentrated in small rapidly dissipated.
space.

•Can do a great form •It is doing small form

of energy . of work like heating

•Can be used for high •Disordered state of

grade application like molecules & dissipated
melting of metal . is fast.
 Temperature or pressures are measures of
physical state. They are closely related to
the energy contained in a substance. As a
result measurements of temperature and
pressure provide a means of determining
energy content.
 One important thing to be remembered
thermal energy cannot be measured but it
can be determined or calculate by formula.
 Thermal Energy is a form of energy .it is
represented by (H) in language of
Thermodynamics.

H = U +P dV

 Enthalpy = Internal Energy +Heat form

of Energy

 Enthalphy=Internal Energy + energy for

doing external work
To differential enthalpy & heat a
simple example

10 gm
25º c 25º c 100 gm

Heat for one

Heat For one
hour At same
hour on
source of heat.
source of
heat.

80º c 40º c
 Thermodynamics
If heat given is 1000 cal then we can write

• 1000 = 100 + 900

for small body
• 1000 = 500 + 500
for large body
So heat difference is (900-500) and heat will
flow from small boy to larger boy although
energy given is same.
 Unit of heat
 Calorie : Amount of heat required to
raise temperature of 1gm f H2o
through
1ºC
 KCalorie : Amount of heat read to
increase temp of 1 kg of H2o through
1ºC.
 S.I System : unit is 1 Watt –1J/s
 1 Calorie=4.187 J.
 Temprature
 Measureshotness or coldness of
substance on a definite scale.

0K -273 ºC
Substance Weight Specific heat J/kgº
J/kg c
Lead 1 kg

 Mercury ,, 130
Brass ,,

 Copper ,, 140
 Iron ,, 380
 Glass ,,
 Aluminum ,, 390
Rubber ,,

 Ice ,,
470
 Alcohol ,, 670
 Water ,,
910
1890
2100
2400
4200
 Heat capacity
 Heat capacity = mass x sp heat
=mxs

= KG * (J / kgº
kg c)

= J/ºc
 SENSIBLE HEAT
 Sensible heat = mass * sp heat * Temp Diff

=m * s * t

= Kg * J * ºc
(kgº
(kg c)

=J
 PHASE CHANGE
 Change of state from
solid state to liquid
state in called fusion.
The fixed
temperature at which
fusion takes is called
melting point of ice. Solid Liquid Gas
 The change of state
from liquid state to Solid Solid-Solid Transformation Melting Sublimation

gas or vapour is latent

heat of vapourization. Liquid Freezing N/A Boiling/Evaporation

Gas Deposition Condensation N/A

 LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
 Quantity of heat required to
convert 1 kg of solid to liquid state
without change of temp. It is
represented by symbol L. It’s units is
Joule per kilogram (J / kg)
 Thus
 L (ice) = 336000 J/Kg
 LATENT HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION
 Quantity of heat required to
convert 1 kg of liquid to vapour state
without change of temp. It is
represented by symbol L.
It’s units is Joule per kilogram (J / kg)
Thus
L (water) = 2260000 J/Kg
 3
1 Kg OF
H2 O at 100 º
c

1 Kg OF
2
Steam at 100 º
1 Kg OF c
ice at 0 º c
1 1 Kg OF
H2 O at 0 º c
1. latent -heat of-fusion =336000
2. sensible heat
=1x4200x100=420000
3. latent -heat of vaporization of
steam
=1x2260000 Total amt =336000
420000
+ 2260000
30,16,000
 HEAT TRANSFER
 Rate equation = driving force /Resistance

Q kcal /Hr = W area of heat trans

Temp difference

Length of heat
transfer
 Modes Of Heat Transfer
 Conduction

 Convection

 Radiation
 Conduction
 The conduction is a heat transfer
which take place,when two bodies
are in contact with one another
 Convection
 Thetransfer of heat by convection
involve the movement of fluid such
as gas or liquid from hot to cold
portion
 Thermal radiation
 Thermal radiation is a process in which energy is
transferred by electro magnetic waves similar to
light wave. These waves may be visible on
invisible key process in the interaction of a
substance with thermal radiation are
 ABSORPTION
 TRANSMISSION
 REFLECTION
 THERMAL RADIATION
 ABSORPTION-process by which
radiation enters a body & becomes
heat.
 TRANSMISSION-process by which
radia -tion passes .
 REFLECTION- radiation is neither
absorbed nor transmitted rather it
bounces off.
 Heat Transfer Equipment
1) Condenser
2) Cooler
3) Chiller
4) Boiler
5) Heat recovery boiler
6) Evaporator
7) Vaporizer
8) Heat exchanger
 Condenser
 Removes latent heat of vaporization
without change in temp & phase
changes.
 Cooler
 Removesensible heat to a lower
temperature
 Chiller
 Uses
as chilling medium to lower
temperature .
 Boiler
 Convert water into steam.
 Heat Recovery Boiler
 Convert H2 O into
steam using heat
from
Flue gases for
recovery of heat
 Evaporator
 Concentrate the
solution
 Vaporizer
 Supplies latent
heat of
vaporization
To convert liquid
into vapour
 Heat Exchanger
 Exchanges heat between two
process fluids

Hot Fluid

Cold Fluid
 Steam
 Steam has been a popular mode of
conveying energy in any industry.
Following characteristics of steam make
it so popular & useful to industry.
1) High specific heat & latent heat
2) High heat transfer coefficient
3) Easy to control & distribute
4) Cheap & insert
Basics of chemical
calculations

Prof. S.S.Mujumdar
 Basics Of Chemical
Calculations.
We shall understand a few terms which are
very important for chemical calculations.

1. Mass in quantity of material of a substance

units can be gm ., lb or kg. depending on
system of weight chosen.

2. For mixture of solids and liquids

composition is expressed in weight
percentage.
Wt. % of A = Wt. of A × 100
Total wt. of system

Vol % of A = vol. of A × 100

Total vol. of system

 Another
very important unit offer use in
chemical calculations is “Mole”
 Mole
 Moleis defined as the quantity of
substance whose weight in
numerically equal to the molecular
weight of the substance.

Mole = Quantity of substance

Molecular Weight
 Molecular wt. is additions of
atomic weight of substance e.g.
H2So4

Molecular wt. = 2×1+32×1+16×4

= 2+32+64
= 98

 Please Remember molecular wt. has no

wt. it is a ratio of wt of 1 molecule of
substance to weight of 1 atom of hydrogen
 Molewt. % of = 98 gm.
H2So4 1 gm.

= 98
So wt. of substance can be converted into
molar unit dividing the wt. by molecular
wt. of substance.
So of gm H2So4 = 49
98
= 0.5 gm. Mole of H2So4
 So we can define
 Gm. Mole – wt. of substance equal to
molecular wt. in gm.
 Kmole – wt.of substance equal to
molecular wt. in kg.
 Lmole – wt.of substance equal to
molecular wt. in lbs
1 gmole NaoH = 23+16+1 = 40 gm

1 Kmole NaoH = 23+16+1 = 40 kg

1 lbmole NaoH = 23+16+1 = 40 lbs

Composition of mixture can be
expressed in mole% also
 Mole % A = Mole of A × 100
Total mole of system
 Mole Fraction
 Let A & B are components of System

WA , WB - wt. of A & B
MA ,MB - Molecular wt. of A & B

Moles Of A = WA
MA

Moles Of B = WB
MB
Mole fraction of A = WA/ MA
WA /MA + WB/MB

Mole fraction of B = WB/ MB

WA /MA + WB/MB

Mole %of A = WA / MA × 100

WA /MA + WB/MB

i = n
∑xi = 1.0
i = 1
 Gases

 The composition of gases in conveniently

expressed In terms of volume percent as volume
of a gas can be measured very easily.

1. Pressure P kpa
2. Volume V m³
3. Temperature T ºK
4. Mass of gas M Kilo
5. Density S kg/m³
 Interrelations of all these parameter are very
important.

Gas Molecules

Pressure gas molecule container in a cylinder are in

motion and hitting the warb of the container and it
gives us the concept of pressure.
 Volume
 A gas has no volume of its own. It occupies the volume of the
container.
 1 kg. of gas stored in a container of volume 1m³ will have a
volume equal 1m³.
 If same 1 kg. of gas to stored in 0.5m³ vessel, volume of gas
would be 0.5m³
 Then we can imagine that pressure of gas in second case
would be double as compared to 1st situation.
 So we conclude that pressure and volume have some
relationship.
 Similarly temperature of gas can be increased by supplying
heat. This can also increase the pressure of the gas.
 So pressure and temperature have also some relationship. This
of coarse is valid for constant mass of gas.
 All these relationship between mass , pressure , volume &
temperature is given by these important gas laws known as

1. Boyle’s Law
2. Gaylussac Law
3. Charles Law
Combining Boyle’s law & Charles Law we get
(PV/T)=Constant
the constant in the above equation is known as
universal gas constant
 Universal gas constant
 R=(PV/nT)

=(Kpa m³/Kmol K)
R has diff. Values
R= 8.3145 (Kpa m³/Kmol K)
R=0.08206(atm m³/kmol k)
R=1.987 (cal /mol K)
 IDEAL GAS LAW
 PV=Nrt

n=1kmole
P=101.325kPa
R=8.3145
V=(RT/P)
=(8.3145*273/101.325)
=22.4 m³
 .
 The above equation shows that 1kmol of
any ideal gas at N.T.P is equal to 22.4m³
 Other way this gives us an indirect
method to find out weight of known
volume of gas at N.T.P
 22.4m³ of O2 at N.T.P = 1kmol=32kg
 22.4m³ of H2 at N.T.P = 1kmol=2kg
 22.4m³ of N2 at N.T.P = 1kmol=28kg
 22.4m³ of AIR at N.T.P = 1kmol=29kg
 SPECIFIC HEAT OF GASES
 We already know the concept of specific heat.
 Specific heat is quantity of heat regarding to
increase temperature of 1 kg of substance
through 1º C

 When we want to heat a gas we can do it by

two ways.
1. Keeping volume constant
2. Keeping Pressure constant
In first case volume is constant & hence the energy given is wholly
utilized in increasing temperature of the gas alone as shown in
picture.
 1st case
 In first case volume is constant & hence the
energy given is wholly utilized in increasing
temperature of the gas alone as shown in
picture.
1 lit gas

Gas
Cylinder
Heat

Piston
 2nd case
 When we heat gas it’s pressure would increase as
per law P T. we allow the gas to expand; so that
pressure remains constant then gas would be said
to be heated at constant pressure.

Cylinder

Piston
 If the quantity of gas in the 1st case and 2nd case is same,
then it can be seen easily that quantity of heat required to
raise temperature through 1ºc would be more in this case as
some work of expansion is done by gas & hence heat quantity
would be more in this case.
 This heat is called specific heat at constant pressure.
 First heat is called specific heat at constant volume.

 Cv – quantity of heat required to increase temperature of 1

kg. of gas through 1ºc keeping volume constant.

 Cp – quantity of heat required to increase temperature of 1

kg. of gas through 1ºc keeping pressure constant.
 We can easily write
Cp = Cv + work of expansion
Cp = Cv + P(V2 - V1)
= Cv + PV2 - PV1
= Cv +RT2 - RT1
Cp = Cv +R (T2 - T1)
T2 - T1 = 1ºc

Cp = Cv + R

Cp = Cv + R
1

As Cp & Cv Are in heat unit

 Expansion Of Gas
 Expansion of gas can be
brought out under two
conditions
1. Isothermal
2. Adiabatic
 1. Isothermal
 Temperature during expansion / compression
remains constant. This means heat by doing
work generated by gas increase the
temperature but since system is open to the
surrounding. This heat will flow to the
surrounding of the temperature will remain
constant of gas expands, heat necessary do this
work is taken from surrounding so that
temperature again remains constant.
 Diagrammatically we can show

Flow of heat to the

surrounding to keep
temperature constant

Flow of heat from the

surrounding to keep system
temperature constant

So we remember in isothermal compression or isothermal expansion

Heat can flow from surrounding to the system or heat can’t flow to the
Surrounding keep temperature constant
 2. Adiabatic expansion /
compression

T1 T2

Temperature increases as heat is generated which cannot , flow to

system as system is isolated from surrounding expansion

T2 T1

Temperature decreases as heat necessary to do work of expansion is taken

from the gas itself. Law followed during expansion in isothermal condition.
PV √ = constant
Law followed during expansion is adiabatic condition
PV √ = constant , where √ = cp/cv
Concept of absolute temperature

PV

ºA
-273º c
0 t

P = P0 ( 1 + α’ t)
α’ = 1/273
V = V0 ( 1 + β t)
Β = 1/273
We find volume of gas & pressure of gas at -273º C.
P-273 = P0 (1-273/273)
= 0

V-273 =V0 (1-273/273)

= V0 [0]

=0

P = P0 (1 + t/273)

P = P0 (273 + t/273)

P = ( P0 *T/273)

P α’ T
V = V0 (1 + t/273)

V = V0 (273 + t/273)

V = (V0 * T/T0)

Vα T
Power & Refrigeration
Cycles
Reversibility

A system is said to change its state reversibly if the path

constituting the change may be retraced so that its initial state is
regained

A reversible process is especially important process in

thermodynamics since it represents an ideal process. All real
processes occur in an irreversible manner, the path constituting the
changes cannot be retraced nor can initial state be regained.

for eg. Expansion of a gas in to vaccume

Conduction of heat from a higher temperature to lower
temperature
 Cycle
If a substance is made to pass
through a sequence of processes
such that it periodically returns to its
original state the substance is said to
be passing through a cycle
 Reversible Cycle
If a cycle is composed of processes which
are both mechanically and thermally
reversible then the cycle is said to be a
reversible cycle
 Refrigeration
Refrigeration implies maintenance of temperature of any process
below that of room
( atmospheric temperature)

P Power Cycle
a Fig. Shows the perfectly
b general cycle on PV-
diagram

d c

Refrigeration
cycle

V
 Power Cycle :- If the working substance of the cycle
traces the path ‘abcda’ work would be done by the
working substance and it is known as power cycle

 Refrigeration Cycle :- If the working substance traces the

path ‘adcba’, work would be done on the working
substance and is known as refrigeration cycle

Working substance is in the same state after completing

the cycle as it was at the start

Work Done = Heat energy added – Heat energy rejected

during cycle during cycle
 Efficiency of Reversible Cycle

N = Work output = W/Q

Heat supplied per cycle
= ( Q – Qr ) / Q
= 1 - Qr / Q

Where N = thermal efficieny of cycle upon upper

and lower temperature of cycle
W = net work output of the cycle
Q = Heat supplied from the source
Qr = Hear rejected in a cycle
 Carnot Cycle

Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle. This gas

power cycle is employed in reciprocating
type of engines.
Isothermal
Isothermal expansion
a expansion
T1 a b
b
P Adiabatic adiabatic
Adiabatic adiabatic T compression expansion
compressi expansion
on T2
c d c
d Isothermal
Isothermal compression
compressio B.
A. n
V S
A. Shows PV-diagram for carnot cycle B. Shows TS-diagram for carnot cycle
 Isothermal expansion

1. a ->b : Isothermal expansion Inlet Outlet

Initially working substance is in valve valve
state ‘a’ on a
PV diagram and at a temp T1. At
this temp.
heat is received by air from a
reservoir, so
work is done on system due to which
volume increases , temperature is
constant i.e T1. V

Figure shows isothermal expansion in

case of reciprocating compressor.
When inlet valve opens, piston goes
down in cylinder due to which
expansion takes place ( volume
increases ) .
 Adiabatic expansion

 b -> c : Adiabatic Inlet Outlet

expansion valve valve

Temperature of air
decreases from T1 to
T2, volume increases i.e
expansion takes place
without flow of heat to (V+dv)
and from air
( adiabetically )

Piston goes down and

volume increases by Dv.
Outlet valve is close
while inlet valve is open
 Isothermal compression

 c d : Isothermal compression
Inlet Outlet
valve valve
Temperature of air is constant
‘T2’. Heat is given
out to the reservoir, so the work
is done by the system due to
which volume decreases
( Compression takes place )
V
Piston starts moving upwards
due to which inlet valve gets
closed and since outlet valve is
also closed, pressure inside the
cylinder increases and volume Piston
decreases
 Adiabatic compression

 d -> a : adiabatic Inlet Outlet

compression valve valve

Temperature increases from T2

to T1 and volume decreases
without flow of heat. Working
fluid comes to initial
temperature T1 and thus the
cycle is completed. V

Piston continues moving

upward due to this outlet valve
get opened and compression
takes place. Heat generated by
compression increases from T2
to T1