AIRCRAFT

INSTRUMENTS

Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME)

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

distance by timing the
propagation delay of VHF
or UHF radio signals by
sending and receiving
pulse pairs two pulses
of fixed duration and
separation
invented by Edward
George "Taffy" Bowen
ground stations are
typically collocated with
VORs

DME system is composed

of a UHF
transmitter/receiver
(interrogator) in the
aircraft and a UHF
receiver/transmitter
(transponder) on the
ground.

A radio pulse takes around 12.36 microseconds to travel

one nautical mile to and from, this is also referred to as
a radar-mile.

The time difference between interrogation and reply

minus the 50 microsecond ground transponder delay is
measured by the interrogator's timing circuitry and
translated into a distance measurement in nautical miles
which is then displayed in the cockpit.

DME interrogator uses

frequencies from 1025 to
1150 MHz
DME transponders
transmit on a channel in
the 962 to 1150 MHz
range and receive on a
corresponding channel
between 962 to 1213
MHz

The band is divided into

126 channels for
interrogation and 126
channels for transponder
replies
The interrogation and
reply frequencies always
differ by 63 MHz
DME facilities identify
themselves with a 1350
Hz morse code three
letter identity

the physical distance

from the aircraft to the
DME transponder
depends trigonometrically
upon both the altitude
above the transponder
and the ground distance
from it

TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION

(TACAN)

Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)

provides the user with a

distance and bearing
from a ground station
provides the following
pieces of information:
Bearing - provides
magnetic bearing to the
station you are tuned to
Distance - slant range to
the station up to 390
nautical miles

To/From - flying away or

towards your station.
Beacon Identifier Tone
(BIT) - audio information
consists of a morse code
trail for identification of the
station you are tuned to
Reliability - warning flag
information lets you know
if the system is reliable

TACAN station with no aircraft initially modulates squitter

onto the carrier, which is basically random noise
generated so that the waveform is the proper length. So
basically, you end up with a signal which is simply noise:

When an aircraft flies into range which is transmitting

distance interrogations, the station will pick these
interrogations up and generate an appropriate response
by pulse modulating DME data into the waveform.

every 30 seconds, the station modulates station

identification in the form of BIT data onto the carrier:

 RF energy from the TACAN transmitter is

fed to the antenna
Parasitic elements positioned around it are
electronically rotated at 15 revolutions per
minute

The distance of the parasitic element

are chosen to obtain a radiation pattern
that looks like this:

as the reflector moves,

the outward lobe of the
cardioid-like radiation
pattern moves around
this creates a physically
amplitude modulated
signal, which each aircraft
sees differently.
Because of the rotating
radiation pattern, the
waveform is variable for
aircraft at different
radials, but all aircraft
receive the reference
signal at the same time

the aircraft determines its bearing from

the station by looking at the waveform of
the signal and where the main reference
burst is pulse encoded.

To provide more accurate bearing information, TACAN

uses the same principle again to calculate fine bearing.
Yet another rotating element with 9 reflectors produces
even more amplitude variations. Again, there is a
reference point for the variable amplitude variations.
This comes in the form of 9 auxillary reference bursts:

And, of course, you still have your main reference burst:

DME responses:

And BIT,
at 30 second intervals:

composite signal (listed below in order of priority):

1. MRB - Main Reference Burst
2. ARB - Auxillary Reference Bursts
3. BIT - 1350Hz Beacon Identification Tone
4. DME - Distance Measurement Equipment
5. 2700Hz Squitter/Filler

TRAFFIC COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS)

Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

an aircraft collision avoidance system designed to reduce

the incidence of mid-air collisions between aircraft
monitors the airspace around an aircraft for other
aircraft equipped with a corresponding active
transponder, independent of air traffic control, and
warns pilots of the presence of other transponderequipped aircraft which may present a threat of mid-air
collision
It is an implementation mandated by International Civil
Aviation Organization to be fitted to all aircraft with
maximum take-off mass over 5700 kg or authorised to
carry more than 19 passengers.

TCAS involves
communication between
all aircraft equipped with
an appropriate
transponder
Each TCAS-equipped
aircraft "interrogates" all
other aircraft in a
determined range about
their, and all other craft
reply to other
it determines if a
potential collision threat
exists

automatically negotiating
a mutual avoidance
maneuver between the
conflicting aircraft
avoidance maneuvers are
communicated to the
flight crew by a cockpit
display and by
synthesized voice
instructions

Versions of TCAS

A. Passive
Collision Avoidance
systems which rely on
transponder replies
triggered by ground and
airborne systems
generally have a range of
less than 7 nautical miles

B. TCAS I
monitor the traffic situation
around a plane (to a range
of about 40 miles) and
offer information on the
approximate bearing and
altitude of other aircraft
It can also generate
collision warnings in the
form of a "Traffic Advisory
does not offer any
suggested remedy

Versions of TCAS

C. TCAS II
offers all the benefits of
TCAS I
offer the pilot direct,
vocalized instructions to
avoid danger, known as a
"Resolution Advisory
TCAS II systems coordinate
their resolution advisories
before issuing commands
to the pilots
vertical separation
advisories

D. TCAS III
"next generation" of
collision avoidance
technology
had the capability to offer
traffic advisories and
resolve traffic conflicts
using horizontal as well as
vertical manouevring
directives
currently suspended and
there are no plans for its
implementation

TCAS Limitations
limited to supporting only vertical separation advisories
ATC isn't automatically informed about resolution
advisories
TCAS lacks automated facilities, increases pilot workload
Lack of terrain/ground awareness information
TCAS is not fitted to many smaller aircraft mainly due to
the high costs

Radio Magnetic
Indicator (RMI)

Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

displays aircraft heading and bearing

to selected radio navigation aids.
Most RMI incorporate two direction
needles.
Typically, the thin, single-barred
needle is connected to an
ADF/TACAN and the other thicker
and/or double-barred is connected to
a VOR.
Heading indicator direction of the
aircraft in relation to magnetic north
Bearing indicator the actual bearing
to the station

Ground Proximity Warning

System (GPWS) /
Enhanced Ground
Proximity Warning System
(EGPWS)

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

Invention of Don Bateman

alert pilots if their aircraft is in
immediate danger of flying into
the ground.
Ground-Collision Warning System
(GCWS)
the system is purely reactive and
can not look ahead at terrain
can not always give pilots
sufficient time to predict and plan
avoidance maneuvers

A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and

will warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in
certain defined flying configurations ("modes").

Mode 1 - Excessive Decent

Rate

Has two (2) boundaries and is

independent of vehicle
configuration.

Mode 2 - Excessive Terrain

Closure Rate
Monitors airspeed, AGL altitude

and AGL rate-of-change, MSL

altitude and vehicle configuration.

Mode 3 - Altitude Loss After

Takeoff Or Rejected Landing

Provides an alert if a decent is

made during initial climb or climb
after rejected landing

Mode 4 - Unsafe Terrain Clearance

Mode 4a - Clean Configuration
terrain clearance mode with the gear
retracted and is armed after take off
upon climbing through 215 meters AGL

Mode 4b - Landing Configuration

provides an alert when the gear is down
and the flaps are not in landing position

Mode 5 - Below Glideslope Deviation

Alert
alerts you of a descent of more than 1.3
dots below an ILS glideslope

Mode 6 - Excessive Bank Angle For

Altitude
alerts when descending through
selected decision height with gear down

Enhanced Ground Proximity

Warning System

the EGPWS displays the surrounding terrain (up to 320

NM) on an EFIS screen or weather radar CRT, and
provides alerts about a minute's flight time or more
away from terrain
On-board computers can compare its current location
with a database of the Earth's terrain.
Pilots will receive much more timely cautions and
warnings of any obstructions to the aircraft's path.

The Black Box

The Black Box

Although they are called "black boxes," aviation
recorders are actually painted bright orange.
Data from both the CVR and FDR is stored on stacked
memory boards inside the crash-survivable memory unit
(CSMU)
The black box is powered by one of two power
generators that draw their power from the plane's
engines. One generator is a 28-volt DC power source,
and the other is a 115-volt, 400-hertz (Hz) AC power
source

A. Flight Data Recorder

first prototype FDR was produced in 1957 by Dr
David Warren
typically double wrapped, in strong corrosionresistant stainless steel or titanium, with hightemperature insulation inside

Crash - Survivable Memory Unit

a cylindrical compartment on the recorde
device is engineered to withstand extreme heat, violent
crashes and tons of pressure. In older magnetic-tape
recorders, the CSMU is inside a rectangular box.
Using three layers of materials, the CSMU in a solid-state
black box insulates and protects the stack of memory
boards that store the digitized information

Three Layers of Crash - Survivable Memory Unit

1. Aluminum housing - There is a thin layer of aluminum

around the stack of memory cards.
2. High-temperature insulation - This dry-silica material is 1
inch (2.54 cm) thick and provides high-temperature
thermal protection. This is what keeps the memory
boards safe during post-accident fires.
3. Stainless-steel shell - The high-temperature insulation
material is contained within a stainless-steel cast shell
that is about 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) thick. Titanium can
be used to create this outer armor as well.

There are several tests that make up the crash-survival sequence:

1.

Crash impact

2.

Pin drop

3.

Static crush

4.

Fire test

5.

Deep-sea submersion

- Researchers shoot the CSMU down an air cannon to create an impact of 3,400
Gs (1 G is the force of Earth's gravity, which determines how much something weighs). At 3,400
Gs, the CSMU hits an aluminum, honeycomb target at a force equal to 3,400 times its weight.
This impact force is equal to or in excess of what a recorder might experience in an actual crash.
- To test the unit's penetration resistance, researchers drop a 500-pound (227-kg)
weight with a 0.25-inch steel pin protruding from the bottom onto the CSMU from a height of 10
feet (3 m). This pin, with 500-pounds behind it, impacts the CSMU cylinder's most vulnerable
axis.
- For five minutes, researchers apply 5,000 pounds per square-inch (psi) of crush
force to each of the unit's six major axis points.
- Researchers place the unit into a propane-source fireball, cooking it using three
burners. The unit sits inside the fire at 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 C) for one hour. The FAA
requires that all solid-state recorders be able to survive at least one hour at this temperature.
- The CSMU is placed into a pressurized tank of salt water for 24

hours.

Salt-water submersion - The CSMU must survive in a salt water tank for 30 days.
7. Fluid immersion - Various CSMU components are placed into a variety of aviation fluids,
6.

including jet fuel, lubricants and fire-extinguisher chemicals.

FDR Record Parameters

prior to September 30, 1969, record six flight

parameters: altitude; airspeed; heading; vertical
acceleration; time of day; and the relative time of radio
transmissions to and from air traffic controllers.
Airplanes certificated after that date were required to
record a total of 11 parameters, adding to the list: pitch
attitude, roll attitude, longitudinal acceleration, controlcolumn position, and engine thrust indications.
Then, it had to record 17 parameters on any flight after
May 25, 1994. The six additional parameters included:
pitch trim position; control wheel position; rudder pedal
position; position of each thrust reverser; trailing-edge
flap position; and leading-edge flap position.

FDR Record Parameters

Currently, there are 88 parameters required as a
minimum
a few of the parameters recorded by most FDRs:
- Time
- Pressure altitude
- Airspeed
- Vertical acceleration
- Magnetic heading
-Control-column position

- Rudder-pedal position
- Control-wheel position
- Horizontal stabilizer
- Fuel flow
- Control and actuator
positions,
- Engine information

FDR Location

Black boxes are usually sold directly to and installed by

the airplane manufacturers. Black boxes are installed in
the tail of the plane. The entire front of the aircraft acts
as a "crush zone" to reduce the shock that reaches the
recorder. The precise location of the recorders depends
on the individual plane. Sometimes they are located in
the ceiling of the galley, in the aft cargo hold or in the
tail cone that covers the rear of the aircraft.

Retrieving Data

With the data retrieved from the FDR, the Safety Board can
generate a computer animated video reconstruction of the flight.
The investigator can then visualize the airplane's attitude,
instrument readings, power settings and other characteristics of the
flight.
This animation enables the investigating team to visualize the last
moments of the flight before the accident.
Black boxes are also equipped with an Underwater Locator Beacon
(ULB). If a plane crashes into the water, this beacon sends out an
ultrasonic pulse at 37.5 kilohertz (kHz) that cannot be heard by
human ears but is readily detectable by sonar and acoustical
locating equipment. There is a submergence sensor on the side of
the beacon that looks like a bull's-eye. When water touches this
sensor, it activates the beacon. computer animated video
reconstruction of the flight.

B. COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER

There may be up to four microphones in the plane's cockpit, each

connected to the cockpit voice recorder (CVR)
Any sounds in the cockpit are picked up by these microphones and
sent to the CVR, where the recordings are digitized and stored.
There is also another device in the cockpit, called the associated
control unit that provides pre-amplification for audio going to the
CVR. The positions of the four microphones are:
1. Pilot's headset
2. Co-pilot's headset
3. Headset of a third crew member (if there is a third crew
member)
4. Near the center of the cockpit, where it can pick up audio
alerts and other sounds

Most magnetic-tape CVRs store the last 30 minutes of

sound. They use a continuous loop of tape that
completes a cycle every 30 minutes. As new material is
recorded, the oldest material is replaced. CVRs that used
solid-state storage can record two hours of audio.
Similar to the magnetic-tape recorders, solid-state
recorders also record over old material

Retrieving Data

A CVR committee usually consisting of members from

the NTSB, FAA, operator of the aircraft, manufacturer of
the airplane, manufacturer of the engines, and the pilots
union, is formed to listen to the recording.
This committee creates a written transcript of the CVR
audio to be used during the investigation.
The CVR records the flight crew's voices, as well as other
sounds inside the cockpit.
From the sounds, parameters such as engine rpm,
system failures, speed, and the time at which certain
events occur can often be determined. Communications
with Air Traffic Control, automated radio weather
briefings, and conversation between the pilots and
ground or cabin crew are also recorded