The Courage of Hallaj

Fr. John DAlton Antiochian Orthodox priest, Monash Uni.

The martyrdom of Mansur al-Hallaj in Baghdad

in 922CE was the culmination of a spiritual
journey involving frequent courageous
provocation of the Islamic state authority. Hallaj
persistently demanded martyrdom, but was only
killed when his presence became too
destabilizing. In many ways Hallaj is a variant of
Peter Browns holy man, occupying a unique
space between the community and the divine,
often at odds with official religion.

Hallaj
Ab al-Mughth Husayn Mansr al-Hallj
(c. 858 26 March 922 CE)
Persian mystic/Sufi teacher, missionary.
Born in Fars, Persia. Son of a cottoncarder, grandson of a Zoroastrian.
Trained by Sahl al-Tustari, and followed
Junayds teaching in many ways.
Imprisoned in 913 for 8 years.

Known as the great carder of

souls (Arabic hallaj)

Actions of Hallaj that are usually

seen as enigmatic
He openly espoused tawhid as unity of
everything in God, (almost pantheism).
He referred to the martyrdom of Christ,
saying that he also wanted to die in the
supreme confession of the cross.
He provoked the rulers, insisting that they
must kill him!
Is this courage or madness?

Peter Browns Holy Man as a lens

There was an increasing sense of distance
from God in the late Roman empire which
meant the role of living and dead saints
became very important.
Compare Hallaj. While Sunnis taught a
vast separation between God and humans,
Hallaj emphasised hulul (Arabic means
descending and incarnation).
This was more a Christian, Shia or Ismaili
teaching.

1. Courageous preaching
Hallaj taught the desire for oneness with
God, and thus many Muslims criticized
him as a "'crypto-Christian' for distorting
the monotheistic revelation in a Christian
way." (Mason, p. 25).

 Hallaj claimed to teach people how to

unite directly with God and taught that the
spiritual Hajj (pilgrimage) was more
important than the physical!
Compare- Christian ascetics and their
clashes with bishops.

2. Courageous Death
Attar calls his death an heroic action.
Hallaj said that his execution would have
redemptive significance, (cf. Christ),
believing that his death "was uniting his
beloved God and His community of
Muslims against himself and thereby bore
witness in extremis to the tawhid (the
oneness) of both." (Mason, p. 25)

 Martyred like
a Christian
on a Cross
(Arabic salib)
Note the
changed
imagery due
to scandal.

 The authorities tried to keep Hallajs

execution a quiet affair which shows their
concern for possible popular reaction. Just
as in late Roman cities, civic unrest was a
constant worry for the authorities.
Christian asceticism unsettled ancient
Roman status markers (Elizabeth Clark)
and created a new form of elite. Hallaj did
the same.

3. Courageous Provocation
Browns holy men often mediated
between locals and the emperor and his
officers, sometimes provoking them.
The authorities had an ambivalent
sensitivity to the power of holy men.
Cf. Hallajs easy access to the court, and
yet preaching from Hanbals tomb. (d.
855CE). Hanbal was almost martyred
because of his challenge to Abassid rule.

Abassid rule in decline

Peak in 850CE; by 922 serious decline.

By 950CE

 Hallaj said Kill me my trustworthy friends, for in

my killing is my life. God has given you my
lawful blood, quick, kill me; Then you will be
soldiers in the jihad and I a martyr.
His statement I am the Truth was bound to
incite the condemnation of heretic, and has an
obvious Christian pre-cursor.
Hallaj fasted for 12 months at Kaaba, where the
pure soul (Nafs Zakiya) was supposed to be
sacrificed.

Other similarities with Christian

holy men
Miracle of fire from Hallajs fingertips in
Jerusalem church cf. Abba Joseph (4th
century) who advised become like flame.
Browns holy man was a patron who was
especially powerful in prayer for others
because of his special relationship with
God. Cf. Hallaj seen as friend of God.
Power over demons. Hallaj was accused
of pact with the jinn (demons).

Other similarities with Christian

holy men (cont.)
Hallajjian doctrine that the Uncreated
Divine Spirit which proceeds from God can
be united to the spirit of the ascetic
(OLeary). Cf Maximos etc.
Radical asceticism eg hair shirt and 400
rakaah a day (cf Simon Stylites).
According to Hanbal, the radically ascetic
Muslims will be close to Jesus at the
judgement.

How much Christian-Muslim

interaction?

Which is the
Muslim
and which the
Christian?
13th century CE image of late 700s
CE meeting.

Other similarities with Christian

holy men (cont.)- Apocalyptic
Brown notes the displacement in late-antiquity of
the notion of an everlasting universe by the
Christian conception of creation and a sooncoming judgement day.
This was heightened in Islam by the frequent
emphasis on the Day of Judgement in the
Quran and hadith.
Brown says that people lived in a perpetual
twilight before the coming of the Final Day,
where it was unclear whether blessings came
from God or the jinn. Only the holy man could
discern.

Other similarities with Christian

holy men (cont.)- Apocalyptic
Hallaj even focussed his later preaching
on the Turks, their conversion being
understood as an apocalyptic sign.
Like the Shia, Hallaj viewed the year 290
AH (902 CE) as a prophetic date and
possible judgement day, and he journeyed
to Mt Ararat seeking annihilation in God.
Apocalyptic very important in Syriac
Christian areas.

Other similarities with Christian

holy men (cont.)- Asceticism
Arabic and Syriac words are almost identical- note identical triliteral roots

Meaning

Arabic

Syriac

prayer

salat

selota

remembrance

dhikr

dukhrana

abstinence

sawm

sawm

renunciation

zuhd

zuhd

soul

nafs

nafs

repentance

tawba

tethuba

spirit

ruh

ruh

Significance
Hallaj has become a symbol of the
intoxicated saint and martyr (Ernst).
Hallajs martyrdom has been defining for
Sufi martyrology and contrasts with eg
Wahhabi view.
Hallaj is a link to Christianity. He calls on
Jesus as Intercessor, teaches that Jesus
is the coming Mahdi, and he even says
that he wants to return to Baghdad to die
there in the confession of the Cross.

Significance
Hallajs extremely influential marginality
defines the limits of acceptable Sufism.
Hallajs peculiar position exemplifies the
quest for authentic individual spirituality in
the face of growing institutionalisation.
His courageous martyrdom provides a
significant alternative exemplar to the
current stereotypical violent Muslim martyr.

A new lens for understanding

Interpreting Hallaj through the lens of
Peter Browns holy man makes Hallajs
courage and actions much more
understandable.