Nursing Research

(5)

March
2007

Research Problems and

Hypotheses

Research Process
1. Formulating the problem
2. Reviewing related literature
3. Developing/utilizing a
theoretical framework
4. Identifying research
variables
5. Formulating hypotheses
6. Selecting a research design
7. Specifying the population
8. Operationalizing &
measuring research
variables

9. Conducting pilot study &

making revisions
10. Selecting the sample
11. Collecting the data
12. Organizing the data for
analysis
13. Analyzing the data
14. Interpreting the results
15. Communicating the
findings

Developing & Refining a

Research Problem

A researcher spends a great deal of time refining a

research idea into a testable research problem

The process of defining a research problem:

1. Define a specific problem area

2. Review relevant scientific literature

3. Examine the problems potential significance to
nursing
4. Pragmatically examine the feasibility of studying
the research problem
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1. Defining the Problem Area

Researchers generally begin with an

interest in some broad topic area
Usually the research focuses on the
dependent variable of the study, the
variable that will be predicted or explained
through its relationship to the independent
variable.
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2. Beginning the Literature Review

The literature review should reveal that the

scientific literature relevant to the problem
area has been critically examined. Often
concluding sections on recommendations
and implications for practice identifying
remaining gaps in the literature, the need
for replication, or the need for extension of
the knowledge base about a particular
research focus
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3. Significance
Before proceeding to a final formulation
of the problem statement, it is crucial
for the researcher to examine the
problems potential significance to
nursing.

The problem should have the following

criteria:
Patients, nurses, the medical community in
general, and society will potentially benefit from
the knowledge derived from this study

Results will be applicable for nursing practice,

education, or administration

Results will be theoretically relevant

Findings will lend support to untested theoretical
assumptions, extend or challenge an existing
theory, or clarify a conflict in the literature
Findings will potentially formulate or alter nursing
practice or policies
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4. Feasibility

Feasibility of a research problem includes

considerations such as time, availability of
subjects, facilities, equipment and money.
The experience of the researcher, and any
ethical considerations may cause the
researcher to decide that the problem in
inappropriate because it lack feasibility

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Development of a
Research problem

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Idea emerges

Brainstorming
Review of the
Literature
Identify Variables

Research Problem is Formulated

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The Variables
A

variable is something that varies.

Researchers attempt to understand how and

why differences in one variable are related to
differences in another variable.
The researcher is asking a question about the
relationship between one or more independent
variables and a dependent variable.
Independent variable is the variable that has
the presumed effect on the dependent variable
is manipulated by the researcher.
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The Variables

In nonexperimental research the independent

variable is not manipulated and is assumed to
have occurred naturally before or during the
study.
Dependent variable is the consequence or the
presumed effect that varies with a change in the
independent variable.
The dependent variable is not manipulated,
it is observed and assumed to vary with changes
in the independent variable.
Predictions are made from the independent
variable to the dependent variable.
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The Variables

It is the dependent variable that the researcher is

interested in understanding, explaining and
predicting.

Although variability in the dependent variable is

assumed to depend on changes in the
independent variable, that doesnt imply that
there is a casual relationship.
There is no restriction on the number of variables
that can be included in a problem statement.
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The Variables

Problem statements that include more than

one independent or dependent variables
may be broken down into subproblems that
are not concise.

Variables are not inherently

independent or dependent.

A variable that is classified as independent in

one study may be considered dependent in
another study.
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Population

The term population refers to the

aggregate or totality of all the objects or
subjects or members which conform to a
designated set of specifications
The nature of the population being studied
needs to be specified in the problem
statement.
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The Final Problem Statement

A problem statement can be:
Declarative
Interrogative

Both are
acceptable

A good problem statement exhibits the following:

It clearly and unambiguously identifies the

study variables
It clearly expresses the variables
relationship to each other
It specifies the nature of the population
being studied
It implies the possibility of empirical testing

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The Final Problem Statement

The problem is associated
with the purpose of the study,
but it is not identical.
The purpose of the study
encompasses the aims or goals the
investigator hopes to achieve with
the research,
not the problem to be solved
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Testability

The statement of the research problem

must imply that the problem is testable, i.e.
measurable by either quantitative or
qualitative methods
A research problem must propose a
relationship between at least one
independent and one dependent variable
indicating that these variables can be
measured
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Developing the Research

Hypotheses

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Hypotheses: intelligent hunches, guesses,

or predictions that assist the researcher in
seeking the solution or answer to the
research question.

A theorys validity is not directly examined.

Instead, it is through the hypotheses that the
merit of a theory can be evaluated
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 Hypotheses are often not stated explicitly

in a research article

Hypotheses flow from the problem

statement, literature review, and
theoretical framework

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 Each hypothesis represents a unit or

subset of the research problem
Hypotheses are formulated before the
study is conducted because they provide
direction for the collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data

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Interrelationship of Problem
Statement, Literature Review,
Theoretical Framework, and
Hypothesis
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Hypothesis

Problem
Statement

Theoretical
Framework

Literature
Review

Purposes of Hypotheses
1. Provide a bridge between theory and

reality
2. Enable researcher to objectively enter
new areas of discovery
3. Provide direction for any research
endeavor by tentatively identifying the
anticipated outcome

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Criteria for
Formulating/Evaluating
Hypotheses

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The Relationship Statement

A declarative statement that identifies the
predicted relationship between two or
more variables

The direction of the relationship is also

specified in this statement e.g. greater
than, less than, negatively, positively .

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 The nature of the relationship, either causal or

associative, is also implied by the hypothesis
A causal relationship is one where the
researcher is able to predict that the
independent variable causes a change in the
dependent variable
It is rare in research that one is in a firm

enough position to take a definitive stand

about a cause-and effect relationship so,

One can only say that there is an associative

relationship between the variables

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Testability
Means that the variables of the study must
lend themselves to observation,
measurement, and analysis
The hypothesis is either supported or not
supported after the data have been
collected and analyzed

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Theory Base
A sound hypothesis is consistent with an
existing body of theory and research
findings
Regardless of whether or not a hypothesis
is arrived at inductively or deductively, it
must be based on a sound scientific
rationale
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Wording the Hypothesis

Hypothesis should be worded in clear, simple and
concise terms

Directional Vs Nondirectional hypotheses:

Directional hypothesis: specifies the expected

direction of the relationship between the

independent and dependent variables

Nondirectional hypothesis: indicates the existence

of a relationship between the variables but does

not specify the anticipated direction of the
relationship

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A deductive hypothesis derived from a theory

will almost always be directional.
The theory will provide a critical rationale for
proposing that relationships between variables will
have particular output

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Statistical versus Research hypotheses

Statistical hypotheses

(null hypotheses): states that there is no

relationship between independent and dependent
variables
Research hypothesis

(scientific hypothesis): a statement of expected

relationship between the variables. It can be
directional or nondirectional
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A hypothesis can either be

supported or not supported by study
findings
Rejection of the statistical hypothesis
is equivalent to acceptance of the
research hypothesis
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Relationship Between
Hypotheses
&
Research design
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 The type of research design; experimental or

non-experimental, will influence the wording of
the hypothesis
In case of an experimental design, the hypothesis
will reflect cause effect relationship

e.g. incidence of . will be greater in subjects

after . than after .

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 Hypothesis related to non-experimental

designs reflect associative relationship
statements
e.g. there will be a positive relationship
between and .

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Research Questions

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 Exploratory studies usually have research

questions not hypotheses
The outcome of an exploratory study may help
in formulating hypotheses for future studies

Qualitative research studies are guided by

research questions rather than hypotheses
The descriptive findings of qualitative studies
can provide the basis for future hypothesistesting studies
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Some studies may have research

questions and hypotheses. In such
case, research questions do not
pertain to the proposed outcomes,
rather, they may provide additional
information that may enrich the
study and may provide direction for
further study
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Critiquing
the Research Problem

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1. Was the problem statement introduced

promptly?
2. Is the problem stated clearly and
unambiguously in declarative or research
form?

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3. Does the problem statement express a

relationship between two or more variables
or at least between an independent and a
dependent variable, implying empirical
testing?
4. Does the problem statement specify the
nature of the population being studied?
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5. Has the problem been substantiated with

adequate experiential and scientific
background material?

6. Has the problem been placed within the

context of an appropriate theoretical
framework?

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7. Has the significance of the problem been

identified?
8. Have pragmatic issues, such as feasibility,
been addressed?
9. Have the purpose, aims, or goals of the
study been identified?
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Critiquing
the Research Hypotheses

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1. Does the hypothesis directly relate to the

research problem?
2. Is the hypothesis concisely stated in a
declarative form?
3. Are the independent and dependent
variables in the statement of the
hypothesis?
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4. Are the variables measurable or

potentially measurable?
5. Is each of the hypotheses specific to
one relationship so that each
hypothesis can be either supported or
not supported?

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6. Is the hypothesis stated in such a way

that it is testable?
7. Is the hypothesis stated objectively,
without value-laden words?
8. Is the direction of the relationship in
each hypothesis clearly stated?
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9. Is the theoretical rationale for the

hypothesis explicit?
10. Are research questions appropriately
used?

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Thank You
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