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Quantum Mechanics-Dr - Gagan Anand
Quantum Mechanics-Dr - Gagan Anand
Matter
Electromagnetic Radiation interacts
Back in 1887
light:
Proved that electricity can be transmitted in
electromagnetic waves.
Established that light was a form of electromagnetic
radiation.
First person to broadcast and receive these waves.
The Experiment:
By varying the voltage on a negatively charged grid
between the ejecting surface and the collector plate,
Lenard was able to:
Determine that the particles had a negative
charge.
Determine the kinetic energy of the ejected
particles.
Lenards Findings:
Thus he theorized that this voltage must be equal to the
maximum kinetic energy of the ejected particles, or:
KEmax = eVstopping
Perplexing Observations:
The intensity of light had no effect on energy
There was a threshold frequency for
ejection
Photoelectric Effect
The electron removed from the
target atoms is called a
photoelectron.
The photoelectron escapes with
kinetic energy equal to the
difference between the energy of
the incident x-ray and the
binding energy of the electron.
Photoelectric Effect
Low anatomic number target atoms
such as soft tissue have low binding
energies.
Therefore the photoelectric electron
is released with kinetic energy nearly
equal to the incident x-ray.
Higher atomic number target atoms
will have higher binding energies.
Photoelectric Effect
Therefore the kinetic energy of the
photoelectron will be proportionally
lower.
Characteristic x-rays are produced
following a photoelectric interaction to
those produced in the x-ray tube.
These characteristic x-rays are also
secondary radiation and acts like
scatter.
Photoelectric Effect
The probability of a photoelectric
interaction is a function of the
photon energy and the atomic
number of the target atom.
A photoelectric interaction can
not occur unless the incident xray has energy equal to or
greater than the electron binding
energy.
Photoelectric Effect
The probability of photoelectric
interaction is inversely proportional to
the third power of the photon
energy.
The probability of photoelectric
interaction is directly proportional to
the third power of the atomic
number of the absorbing material
Compton Effect
Moderate energy x-ray photon through out
the diagnostic x-ray range can interact with
outer shell electron.
This interaction not only changes the
direction but reduced its energy and ionizes
the atom as well.
The outer shell electron is ejected. This is
called Compton Effect or Compton
Scattering.
Scattered Photon
E= h
p= h/c
Incident Photon
E= h
p= h/c
Scattered electr
Target Electron
E=mc2
p=0
E= m2c4 + p2c2
p= p
Scattered Photon
Incident Photon
E= h
p= h/c
E= h
p= h/c
recoiled electron
E= KE+ mc2
p= p
h cos
h
c
cos
p
p
h sin
sin
h
c
h
+ 0 = cos + cos
p
c
0 =h sin - sin
p
c
p
sin
=
p
hsin
c=
(1-cos)
cc
Since, /c = 1/ and /c = 1/
mc 1
h
1
=
(1-cos)
Simplifying:
- = h
mc
(1-cos)
Compton Effect
Photons scattered back towards the
incident x-ray beam are called
Backscatter Radiation.
While important in radiation therapy,
backscatter in diagnostic x-ray is
sometimes responsible for the hinges
on the back of the the cassette to be
seen on the x-ray film
Experimental Verification
photon
Monochromatic
X-ray Source
Braggs X-ray
Spectrometer
Graphite
target
1. One peak is found at same
position. This is unmodified radiation
2. Other peak is found at higher
wavelength. This is modified signal of
low energy.
3.
Features of Compton
Scattering
As mass density of
absorber increases
Pair Production
If the incident x-ray
has sufficient
energy, it may
escape the electron
cloud and come
close enough to the
nucleus to come
under the influence
of the strong
electrostatic field of
the nucleus.
Pair Production
The interaction
with the nucleus
strong electrostatic
field causes the
photon to
disappear and in
its place appear
two electrons.
Pair Production
One is positively
charged and called
a positron while
the other remains
negatively
charged. This is
called Pair
Production.
Pair Production
It take a photon
with 1.02 MeV to
undergo Pair
Production.
Therefore it is not
important to
diagnostic x-ray.
Pair Annihilation
When an electron and positron interact with each other due
to their opposite charge, both the particle can annihilate
converting their mass into electromagnetic energy in the
form of two - rays photon.
e e
Charge, energy and momentum are again conversed. Two
Louis de Broglie
Ill try messing around with
some of Einsteins formulae and
see what I can come up with.
De Broglie
MATTER WAVES
We have seen that light comes in discrete units (photons) with
particle properties (energy and momentum) that are related to the
wave-like properties of frequency and wavelength.
In 1923 Prince Louis de Broglie postulated that ordinary matter can have
wave-like properties, with the wavelength related to momentum
p in the same way as for light
de Broglie relation
de Broglie wavelength
Plancks constant
h 6.63 1034 Js
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
The Davisson-Germer experiment (1927)
The Davisson-Germer experiment:
scattering a beam of electrons from
a Ni crystal. Davisson got the 1937
Nobel prize.
Davisson
G.P. Thomson
i
At fixed angle, find sharp peaks in
intensity as a function of electron energy
At fixed accelerating voltage (fixed
electron energy) find a pattern of sharp
reflected beams from the crystal
Davisson, C. J.,
"Are Electrons
Waves?," Franklin
Institute Journal
205, 597 (1928)
Davisson-Germer Experiment
If particles have a wave nature, then under
appropriate conditions, they should exhibit
diffraction
Davisson and Germer measured the
wavelength of electrons
This provided experimental confirmation of
the matter waves proposed by de Broglie
Incident Beam
12.28 o
A
V
Hence the wavelength for 54 V electron
o
12.28
1.67 A
54
2d sin
o
Double-Slit Experiment:
cannot predict where electron would land
Role of an Observer
The observer is objective and passive
Physical events happen independently of
whether there is an observer or not
This is known as objective reality
Double-Slit Experiment:
act of observation affects behaviour of electron
Role of an Observer in
Quantum Mechanics
The observer is not objective and passive
The act of observation changes the
physical system irrevocably
This is known as subjective reality
y
d
d sin
Incoming coherent
beam of particles
(or light)
D
Alternative
method of
detection: scan a
detector across
the plane and
record number of
arrivals at each
point
Detecting
screen
Slit
Laser
Source
Slit
1 meter
Detector
wave theory
pattern of fringes:
Intensity bands due to
variations in square of
amplitude, A2, of resultant
wave on each point on
screen
role of the slits:
to provide two coherent
sources of the secondary
waves that interfere on the
screen
pattern of fringes:
Intensity bands due to
variations in probability, P, of
a photon striking points on
screen
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Neutrons, A Zeilinger
et al. 1988 Reviews of
Modern Physics 60
1067-1073
Fringe
visibility
decreases as
molecules are
heated. L.
Hackermller
et al. 2004
Nature 427
711-714
Interference patterns can not be explained classically - clear demonstration of matter waves
No of electrons 10
100
No of electrons 1000
100000
DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Some key papers in the development of the double-slit experiment during the 20th century:
Performed with a light source so faint that only one photon exists in the apparatus at any one time
G I Taylor 1909 Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 15 114-115
Performed with electrons
C Jnsson 1961 Zeitschrift fr Physik 161 454-474,
(translated 1974 American Journal of Physics 42 4-11)
Performed with single electrons
A Tonomura et al. 1989 American Journal of Physics 57 117-120
Performed with neutrons
A Zeilinger et al. 1988 Reviews of Modern Physics 60 1067-1073
Performed with He atoms
O Carnal and J Mlynek 1991 Physical Review Letters 66 2689-2692
Performed with C60 molecules
M Arndt et al. 1999 Nature 401 680-682
Performed with C70 molecules showing reduction in fringe visibility as temperature rises
and the molecules give away their position by emitting photons
L. Hackermller et al 2004 Nature 427 711-714
Performed with Na Bose-Einstein Condensates
M R Andrews et al. 1997 Science 275 637-641
An excellent summary is available in Physics World (September 2002 issue, page 15)
and at http://physicsweb.org/ (readers voted the double-slit experiment the most beautiful in physics).
Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle
Implications
It is impossible to know both the position and
momentum exactly, i.e., x=0 and p=0
These uncertainties are inherent in the
physical world and have nothing to do with the
skill of the observer
Because h is so small, these uncertainties are
not observable in normal everyday situations
Example of Baseball
A pitcher throws a 0.1-kg baseball at 40 m/s
So momentum is 0.1 x 40 = 4 kg m/s
Suppose the momentum is measured to an
accuracy
of 1 percent , i.e.,
p = 0.01 p = 4 x 10-2 kg m/s
Example of Electron
Same situation, but baseball replaced by
an electron which has mass 9.11 x 10 -31 kg
So momentum
= 3.6 x 10-29 kg m/s
and its uncertainty = 3.6 x 10-31 kg m/s
The uncertainty in position is then
Another Consequence of
Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle
p sin / 2 p y p sin / 2
Small angle approximation
/2
p
p y 2 p sin / 2 p
h
de Broglie relation gives p h / and so p y
From before
hence
p y y h
xpx h/ 2
yp y h/ 2
z pz h/ 2
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE.
xp y 0
etc
Heisenbergs Uncertainty
Principle involving energy and
time
E t h/ 2
Transitions between energy levels of atoms are not perfectly
sharp in frequency.
n=2
n=1
There is a corresponding spread in
the emitted frequency
Intensity
E h 32
n=3
32
32 Frequency
CONCLUSIONS
Light and matter exhibit wave-particle duality
Relation between wave and particle properties
given by the de Broglie relations
E h
h
p
,
Evidence for particle properties of light
Photoelectric effect, Compton scattering
Evidence for wave properties of matter
Electron diffraction, interference of matter waves
(electrons, neutrons, He atoms, C60 molecules)
Heisenberg uncertainty principle limits
simultaneous knowledge of conjugate variables
xpx h/ 2
yp y h/ 2
zpz h/ 2
The Phase
Velocity
How fast is the wave
traveling?
Velocity is a reference
distance
divided by a reference time.
v = f
In terms of k, k = 2/ , and
the angular frequency, = 2/ , this is:
v =/k
The Group
Velocity
This is the velocity at which the overall shape of the waves amplitudes, or the
wave envelope, propagates. (= signal velocity)
Here, phase velocity = group velocity (the medium is non-dispersive)
Black dot moves at phase velocity. Red dot moves at group velocity.
This is normal dispersion (refractive index decreases with increasing )
Black dot moves at group velocity. Red dot moves at phase velocity.
This is anomalous dispersion (refractive index increases with increasing )
The group velocity is the velocity with which the envelope of the wave
packet, propagates through space.
The phase velocity is the velocity at which the phase of any one
frequency component of the wave will propagate. You could pick one
particular phase of the wave (for example the crest) and it would appear
to travel at the phase velocity.
Expectation values
Thus if we know (x, t) (a solution of TDSE), then knowledge
of * dx allows the average position to be calculated:
x xi P( xi ) x
i
x x
xP( x)dx
x ( x, t ) dx
The average is also know as the expectation value and are very
important in quantum mechanics as they provide us with the
average values of physical properties because in many cases
precise values cannot, even in principle, be determined see later.
Similarly
x2
x 2 P ( x) dx
x 2 ( x, t ) dx
Normalisation
Total probability of finding a particle anywhere must be 1:
P ( x)dx
( x, t ) dx 1
(x)
Wave function
The quantity with which Quantum Mechanics is concerned
is the wave function of a body.
Wave function, is a quantity associated with a moving
particle. It is a complex quantity.
||2 is proportional to the probability of finding a particle at a
particular point at a particular time. It is the probability density.
| |2 *
is the probability amplitude.
Thus if
A iB
then
* A iB
| | * A i B A B
2
Normalization
||2 is the probability density.
The probability of finding the particle within an element of
d
volume
2
| | d
2
|
|
d 1
Normalization
2x
A sin
(i)
From (i)
2
4 2
2x
2 A sin
2
x
2
4 2
2
2
x
(ii)
mo v
2 2
1 mo v
2
2
1
2
2mo mo v
2
h2
1 2mo K
h2
where K is the K.E. for the non-relativistic
case
Suppose
E is the total energy of the particle
and V is the potential energy of the particle
1 2mo
2 (E V )
2
(iii)
2
4 2
2 2mo ( E V )
2
x
h
2 2mo
2 ( E V ) 0
2
x
2 2 2 2mo
2 2 2 ( E V ) 0
2
x
y
z
2mo
2 ( E V ) 0
2mo
2 E 0
Ae
i
( Et px )
(i)
2
p2
2
2
x
2
2
p
2
x
(ii)
E i
t
(iii)
iE
t
Potential
p2
E
Vx ,t
2m
p2
E
V
2m
(iv)
2 2
i
V
2
t
2m x
This is the time dependent Schrodingers wave equation
for a particle in one dimension.
1 2
due to
principle
P | |2 | 1 2 |2
( 1 2 )* ( 1 2 )
( 1* 2* )( 1 2 )
1* 1 2* 2 1* 2 2* 1
P P1 P2 1* 2 2* 1
P P1 P2
Probability density cant be added linearly
superposition
Expectation values
Expectation value of any quantity which is a function of
x ,say f(x) is givenby
f (x)
f ( x) | | dx
2
for normalized
x is
x | | dx
2
x x | |2 dx a 2 x 3 dx
0
x
a
4
2
a2
x
4
Operators
(Another way of finding the expectation value)
An operator is a rule by means of which, from a given
function we can find another function.
For a free particle
Then
Here
Ae
i
( Et px )
i
p
x
p
i x
^
(i)
Similarly
Here
i
E
t
E i
t
^
(ii)
E K .E. U
^
p
E
U
2mo
^
1
i
U
t 2m i x
U U
2 2
i
U
2
t
2m x
2 2
i
U
2
t
2m x
This is the time dependent Schrodinger equation
If Operator is Hamiltonian
2 2
H
U
2
2m x
^
H E
th
en
2
d
2x
Q. Suppose e
is eigen function of operator
2
dx
then find the eigen value.
d2
G 2
dx
^
Solutio
n.
d 2
d 2 2x
G 2 2 (e )
dx
dx
^
G 4e 2 x
^
G 4
The eigen value is 4.
Particle in a Box
Consider a particle of rest mass mo enclosed in a onedimensional box (infinite potential well). V
V
Boundary conditions for
Potential
0 for 0 < x <
L
for 0 > x > L
particle
V(x
)=
Boundary conditions
for
V 0
0 for x = 0
=
x=0
0 for x = L
{
x=L
2 2mo
2 E 0
2
x
(i)
V 0
inside
h
2
p
k
(k is the
constant)
2mo E
p
k
2mo E
2
k
2
(ii)
2
2
k
0
2
x
(iii)
( x) A sin kx B cos kx
(iv)
propagation
B0
( x) A sin kx
(v)
( L) A sin k .L
0 A sin k .L
A 0 sin k .L 0
sin k .L sin n
kL n
n
k
L
(vi)
nx
( x) A sin
L
2mo E
k
2
2
2mo E
k
E
2mo
n2h2
2
8mo L
Where n = 1, 2, 3.
(vi
i)
E1 0
momentum
0
i.e. 0
p
Butxmax L
since the particle is confined in the box of
dimension L.
E2
E1
nx
n ( x) A sin
L
Using
condition
Normalization
( x) | dx 1
2
nx
A sin
dx 1
L
0
L
L
A 1 A
2
2
2
L
n ( x)
2
nx
sin
L
L
E Ex E y Ez
2
h
E (nx2 n y2 nz2 )
8mL2
Eigen
function
x y z
n yy
nxx
nzz
Ax Ay Az sin
sin
sin
L
L
L
n yy
nxx
2
nzz
sin
sin
sin
L
L
L
L
References:
Austin, Geoff. Jan 2005. Photo Electric Effect. Retrieved 10-23-05.
http://www.eequalsmcsquared.auckland.ac.nz/sites/emc2/tl/pee/overvi
ew.cfm
Einstein, Albert. (1905). On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of Light. Annalen der Physik, Vol 17,
132.
Elert, Glenn. Photoelectric Effect. Retrieved 10-28-05.
http://hypertextbook.com/physics/modern/photoelectric/
Hamakawa, Yoshihiro. (2004). Thin-Film Solar Cells: Next generation
photovoltaics and its application. New York: Springer.
Lenardic, Denis. A Walk Through Time. Retrieved 11-12-05.
http://www.pvresources.com/en/history.php
U.S. DOE Photovoltaics Program. (2005). Photovoltaics Timeline.
Retrieved 10-27-05. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsolar2.html