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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Description
Isentropic compression
Constant pressure heat addition
Isentropic expansion
Constant volume heat rejection
th , Diesel
Now to find Qin and Qout.
Wnet
Qout
1
Qin
Qin
Qnet , 23 U 23 P2 (V3 V2 )
Qnet , 23 Qin mCv (T3 T2 ) mR (T3 T2 )
Qin mC p (T3 T2 )
Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant (just as we did for the
Otto cycle)
Qnet , 41 U 41
Qnet , 41 Qout mCv (T1 T4 )
Qout mCv (T1 T4 ) mCv (T4 T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes
th , Diesel
Qout
1
Qin
mCv (T4 T1 )
1
mC p (T3 T2 )
th , Diesel
Cv (T4 T1 )
1
C p (T3 T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
k T2 (T3 / T2 1)
What is T3/T2 ?
PV
PV
3 3
2 2 where P3 P2
T3
T2
T3 V3
rc
T2 V2
where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of the
duration of the heat addition at constant pressure. Since the fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees
that the crank rotated during the fuel injection into the cylinder.
4
What is T4/T1 ?
PV
PV
4 4
1 1 where V4 V1
T4
T1
T4 P4
T1 P1
PV PV
k
1 1
k
2 2
and PV PV
k
4 4
k
3 3
Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and
obtain
Therefore,
th , Diesel
1 T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
k T2 (T3 / T2 1)
1 T1 rck 1
1
k T2 (rc 1)
1
1
r
k 1
r 1
k (rc 1)
k
c
qin
4
qout
1
v
v
V
T T 3
4
3 V
4
in
k 1
2.265V
2
T
3
V
4
k 1
2.265
T
3
r
k 1
2.265
2200 K
20
0.4
920.6 K
out
net, out
th
q
w
in
out
63.5%
q
1235 kJ/kg
in
v 1
0.885 m 3 /kg v
1
max
P
95 kPa
1
v
v
v max
min
2
r
w
w
kPa m 3
784.4 kJ/kg
net, out
net, out
933 kPa
MEP
v v
v 1 1/r 0.885 m 3 /kg 1 1/20
kJ
1
2
1
Example 2
An ideal Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 18
and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the
compression process, air is at 100 kPa, 27 C and
0.0018 m3. Utilizing the cold-air-standard assumptions,
determine
(a) the temperature and pressure of air at the end of
each process,
(b) the net work output,
(c) the thermal efficiency of this cycle, and
(d) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
V1 = 0.0018 m3
V1 0.0018
V2
0.0001m3
r
18
V3 = rc V2 = 2 (0.0001) = 0.0002 m3
V4 = V1 = 0.0018 m3
V1
p2 p1
V2
T3
T2
V2
= 1906.6 K
k 1
0.0002
1906.6
0.0018
0.4
= 791.7 K
V3
p 4 p3
V4
(b)
0.0002 1.4
5719.8(
) 263.9 kPa
0.0018
p1V1 100(0.0018)
m
0.0021kg
RT1
0.287(300)
Table A-2
cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK
cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK
w net 2.03
(c)
0.733
qin
2.77
Wnet
2.03
= 1194.1 kPa
(d) MEP
V1 V2 0.0018 0.0001
qin
2
4
qout
1
v
v
18
0.9076 m 3 /kg
P1
80 kPa
v1 0.9076 m 3 /kg
v2
0.06483 m 3 /kg
r
14
v1
v2
P2 P1
qin
2
qout
1
k 1
P3
P2
T x T2
v
v
4829 kPa
(727.1 K)
1091 K
3219
kPa
T3 T x
v
T4 T3 3
v4
0.07780
(1091 K)
1309 K
0.06483
k 1
0.07780
(1309 K)
0.9076
1.4 1
490.0 K
19
qin
2
4
qout
1
v
v
q in cv (T x T2 ) c p (T3 T x )
(0.718 kJ/kg K )(1091 727.1)K (1.005 kJ/kg K )(1309 1091)K
480.4 kJ/kg
q out
170.2 kJ/kg
1
0.646
q in
480.4 kJ/kg
20
Criteria of Performance
2
1
Indicated Power
Defined as the rate of work done by the gas on the
piston as evaluated from an indicator diagram obtained
from the engine using the electronic engine indicator.
ip = work done per cycle cycle per minute
For four-stroke engine,
pi LANn
IP
2
And for two-stroke engine,
IP pi LANn
2
2
Indicated Power
Indicated mean effective pressure, pi given by:,
2
3
Brake Power
Brake power is a way to measure the engine power output.
Wr
2
4
Therefore
bp 2N
m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp m IP
2
2
Pb m Pi
2
5
Friction Power
fp IP bp
2
6
Mechanical Efficiency
mech
brake power
indicated power
2
7
Since
pi LANn
IP
2
BP m IP
m pi LANn Pb LANn
bp
2
2
Pb LANn
2NT
2
So:
4
Pb
T
LAn
2
8
The power output of the engine is obtained from the chemical energy of
the fuel supplied. The overall engine efficiency is given by the brake
thermal efficiency,
bp
bp
bp
brake power
brake power
2
9
sfc is the mass flow rate of fuel consumed per unit power
output and is a criterion of economical power production.
sfc
m f
bp
3
0
Volumetric Efficiency
V
V
Vs
3
1
Example 5.4
An engine operating at 2400 rpm consumes 12 ml of fuel (s.g. 0.85) in
60 second. The engine indicates a load of 30 N on the pony brake
system and the brakes torque arm is 20 cm. Determine (a) the brake
power, (b) the mass flow rate of fuel, and (c) the specific fuel
consumption.
Solution:
3
2
Example 5.4
A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90
mm. Its rated speed is 2800 rpm and it is tested at this speed against a
brake which has a torque arm of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N
and the fuel consumption is 6.741 l/h. The specific gravity of the petrol
used is 0.735 and it has a net calorific value of 44,200 kJ/kg. The
engine is tested in an atmospheric condition at 101.325 kPa and 15 oC
at air-fuel ratio of 14.5/1. Calculate for this speed, the engine torque,
the bmep, the brake thermal efficiency, the specific fuel consumption
and the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
3
3
Real Case
pi LANn
IP
2
bp 2N
3
4
Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is the air-standard ideal cycle approximation for the gas-turbine
engine. This cycle differs from the Otto and Diesel cycles in that the processes
making the cycle occur in open systems or control volumes. Therefore, an open
system, steady-flow analysis is used to determine the heat transfer and work for the
cycle.
Search the web for information on new gas turbine technologies. One site that gives
a link to the GE 7FA group of gas turbines that operate on natural gas is
http://www.webshots.com/explains/sports/gas-turbine.html
A second link gives an overview of the applications of gas turbines.
http://www.energysolutionscenter.org/DistGen/Tutorial/CombTurbine.htm#Heat_Reco
very
Brayton Cycle Analysis
We assume the working fluid is air and the specific heats are constant and will
consider the cold-air-standard cycle.
35
36
37
38
th , Brayton
Wnet
Qout
1
Qin
Qin
E in E out
m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
The conservation of mass gives
m in m out
m 2 m 3 m
For constant specific heats, the heat added per unit mass flow is
Q in m (h3 h2 )
p (T3 T2 )
Q in mC
Q in
qin
C p (T3 T2 )
m
39
The conservation of energy for process 4-1 yields for constant specific heats (lets
take a minute for you to get the following result)
Q out m (h4 h1 )
p (T4 T1 )
Q out mC
qout
Q out
C p (T4 T1 )
th , Brayton
th , Brayton
Q out
q
1
1 out
Q in
qin
C p ( T4 T1 )
1
C p (T3 T2 )
(T4 T1 )
1
(T3 T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1 1)
1
T2 (T3 / T2 1)
40
T2 T3
T1 T4
or
T4 T3
T1 T2
th , Brayton 1
T1
T2
41
th , Brayton 1
1
rp
( k 1)/ k
Extra Assignment
Evaluate the Brayton cycle efficiency by determining the net work directly from the
turbine work and the compressor work. Compare your result with the above
expression. Note that this approach does not require the closed cycle assumption.
42
Example 9-2
The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow, the
cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit temperature to
the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.
Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.
E in E out
m 1h1 W comp m 2 h2
m in m out
m 1 m 2 m
43
For constant specific heats, the compressor work per unit mass flow is
W comp m (h2 h1 )
p (T2 T1 )
W comp mC
wcomp
W comp
m
C p (T2 T1 )
44
wcomp C p (T2 T1 )
kJ
1005
.
(492.5 295) K
kg K
kJ
19815
.
kg
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (lets take a minute for you to get the following result)
W turb m (h3 h4 )
p (T3 T4 )
W turb mC
wturb
Since process 3-4 is isentropic
W turb
C p (T3 T4 )
m
45
T4 1
T3 rp
( k 1) / k
1
T4 T3
r
p
wturb
( k 1) / k
(1.4 1) /1.4
1
1100 K
659.1 K
6
kJ
C p (T3 T4 ) 1005
.
(1100 659.1) K
kg K
kJ
442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is
m 2 m 3 m
m 2 h2 Q in m 3h3
Q in
qin
h3 h2
m
C p (T3 T2 ) 1005
.
609.6
kJ
kg
kJ
(1100 492.5) K
kg K
46
th , Brayton
wnet
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
0.40 or
kJ
609.6
kg
40%
47
wcomp
win
BWR
wout
wturb
kJ
19815
.
kg
0.448
kJ
442.5
kg
Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?
What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased? Consider
the T-s diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is the net
heat added to the cycle. By the first law applied to the cycle, the net heat added to
the cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus, the area enclosed by the
cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by the cycle.
48
Let's take a closer look at the effect of the pressure ratio on the net work done.
rp
( k 1)/ k
)
C
T
(
r
1)
p 1 p
( k 1)/ k
49
rp 1 and
T3
rp
T1
k /( k 1)
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
1
wnet C p T3 (1 ) C p T1 ( X 1)
X
dwnet
C p T3[0 ( 1) X 2 ] C p T1[1 0] 0
dX
Solving for X
50
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is
For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2
The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280
0.60
260
0.55
240
0.50
wnet kJ /kg
0.40
200
T1 =22C
180
P1 =95 kPa
160
T3 =1100 K
t =c =100%
140
120
0
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
rp,max
2
10 12
Pratio
th,Brayton
0.45
220
14
16
18
20
0.15
22
51
52
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act h5 h2
regen
qregen , act
qregen , max
h5 h2
h4 h2
53
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
regen
T5 T2
T4 T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
th , regen
qout
1
qin
1
h6 h1
h3 h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.
Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)
54
When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set th,Brayton = th,regen then
Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
55
For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.
What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?
What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?
The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.
56
The cycle schematic is the same as above and the T-s diagram showing the effects of
compressor and turbine efficiencies is below.
100 kPa
4a
2a
2s
4s
58
Summary of Results
Cycle type
Actual
Actual
Actual
Ideal
Ideal
Ideal
regen
0.00
0.65
1.00
0.00
0.65
1.00
comp
0.75
0.75
0.75
1.00
1.00
1.00
turb
0.86
0.86
0.86
1.00
1.00
1.00
qin kJ/kg
578.3
504.4
464.6
659.9
582.2
540.2
wcomp kJ/kg
326.2
326.2
326.2
244.6
244.6
244.6
wturb kJ/kg
464.6
464.6
464.6
540.2
540.2
540.2
wcomp/wturb
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.453
0.453
0.453
th
24.0%
27.5%
29.8%
44.8%
50.8%
54.7%
59
Compressor analysis
The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is
T2 s P2
T1 P1
( k 1) / k
P2
P
1
( k 1) / k
T2 s T1
300 K (
To find the actual temperature at compressor exit, T2a, we apply the compressor
efficiency
comp
wisen , comp
wact , comp
T2 a T1
h2 s h1 T2 s T1
h2 a h1 T2 a T1
comp
300 K
(T2 s T1 )
1
(543.4 300) K
0.75
624.6 K
60
wcomp h2 a h1 C p (T2 a T1 )
kJ
kJ
1.005
(624.6 300) K 326.2
kg K
kg
Turbine analysis
The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (lets take a minute for you to get the following result)
W turb m (h3 h4 a )
p (T3 T4 a )
W turb mC
wturb
W turb
C p (T3 T4 a )
m
61
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.
T4 s P4
T3 P3
( k 1) / k
P4
T4 s T3
P3
( k 1) / k
To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.
turb
wact , turb
wisen , turb
h3 h4 a T3 T4 a
h3 h4 s T3 T4 s
T4 a T3 turb (T3 T4 s )
1200 K 0.86(1200 662.5) K
737.7 K T2 a
62
wturb h3 h4 a C p (T3 T4 a )
kJ
(1200 737.7) K
kg K
kJ
464.6
kg
1005
.
wcomp
win
BWR
wout
wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
0.70
kJ
464.6
kg
63
Regenerator analysis
To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness.
T5 T2 a
regen
T4 a T2 a
T5 T2 a regen (T4 a T2 a )
624.6 K 0.65(737.7 624.6) K
6981
.K
64
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.
m 2 a h2 a Q regen m 5h5
m 2 a m 5 m
Q regen
qregen
h5 h2 a
m
C p (T5 T2 a )
kJ
(6981
. 624.6) K
kg K
kJ
73.9
kg
1005
.
65
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the regenerator
exit.
qregen
Cp
kJ
kg
737.7 K
kJ
1.005
kg K
73.9
664.2 K
66
qin h3 h5 C p (T3 T5 )
kJ
(1200 6981
. )K
kg K
kJ
504.4
kg
1005
.
th , Brayton
wnet
qin
kJ
138.4
kg
0.274 or
kJ
504.4
kg
27.4%
You are encouraged to complete the calculations for the other values found in the
summary table.
68
69
The T-s diagram for this cycle is shown below. Sketch the P-v diagram.
70
71
Typical shell and tube heat exchanger used for the intercooler,
evaporator, and condenser for a chilled water refrigeration system.
72
Forced draft cooling tower for cooling water used in the intercooler and
condenser heat exchangers of the chilled water refrigeration system
73
Intercooling
When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages will
reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is reduced
because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of the fluid
and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given pressure rise.
To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to
minimize the compressor work, we follow the approach shown in Chapter 7.
For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4
wcomp = v dP = v dP v dP v dP
1
75
wcomp =
k
k
( P2v2 Pv
( P4 v4 P3v3 )
1 1)
k -1
k -1
k
kR
R(T2 T1 )
(T4 T3 )
k -1
k -1
k
R T1 (T2 / T1 1) T3 (T4 / T3 1)
k -1
( k 1) / k
k
P2
R T1
1 T3 4
P3
k -1 P1
( k 1) / k
Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.
76
For two-stage compression, lets assume that intercooling takes place at constant
pressure and the gases can be cooled to the inlet temperature for the compressor,
such that P3 = P2 and T3 = T1.
The total work supplied to the compressor becomes
To find the unknown pressure P2 that gives the minimum work input for fixed
compressor inlet conditions T1, P1, and exit pressure P4, we set
dwcomp ( P2 )
dP2
77
This yields
P2 P1 P4
or, the pressure ratios across the two compressors are equal.
P2 P4 P4
P1 P2 P3
Intercooling is almost always used with regeneration. During intercooling the
compressor final exit temperature is reduced; therefore, more energy must be
supplied in the heat addition process to achieve the maximum temperature of the
cycle. Regeneration can make up part of the required heat transfer.
To supply only compressed air, using intercooling requires less work input. The next
time you go to a home supply store where air compressors are sold, check the larger
air compressors to see if intercooling is used. For the larger air compressors, the
compressors are made of two piston-cylinder chambers. The intercooling heat
exchanger is often a pipe with a attached fins that connects the large piston-cylinder
chamber with the smaller piston-cylinder chamber. Often the fly wheel used to drive
the compressor has spokes shaped like fan blades that are used to increase air flow
across the compressor and heat exchanger pipe to improve the intercooling effect.
78
Extra Assignment
Obtain the expression for the compressor total work by applying conservation of
energy directly to the low- and high-pressure compressors.
Reheating
When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating
between stages will increase the net work done (it also increases the
required heat input). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating was shown
above.
The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the
turbine work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming
reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure
steady-flow process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be
P7 P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal.
P6 P7 P8
P7 P9 P9
79