Cell Structures and their

Functions
BY: MS. LOURADEL M. ULBATA, MAN, RN

Cells and Tissues

Cells are the basic unit of all living
things
Carry out all chemical activities needed
to sustain life
All living things are made of cells

Slide 3.1

General Definitions:

Tissue - group of cells similar in

structure and function
Histology microscopic study of tissue
structure
Histo- = tissue, -ology = study

Functions of the Cell

Basic

unit of life
Protection and support
Movement
Communication
Cell metabolism and energy release
Inheritance

Cell Characteristics
Plasma

Membrane

Outer cell boundary

Cytoplasm

Cytosol
Cytoskeleton
Cytoplasmic inclusions
Organelles

Specialized structures that perform

specific functions
5

Plasma Membrane
Outermost

component of a cell
Encloses the cytoplasm and forms the
boundary bet material inside the cell and
material outside the cell.
Extracellular substances
Intracellular substances
Cell membrane is a selective barrier that
determines what moves in and out of the
cell
7

Cell Membrane
The

major molecules that make up the

cell membrane are:
Phospholipids
Proteins
Cholesterol
Carohydrates
Water
Ions

Membrane Lipids
Phospholipids

form a lipid bilayer of

molecules

Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads

Hydrophobic (water-fearing) nonpolar
heads
The double layer of phospholipids forms a lipid
barrier bet the inside and outside the cell
Has given rise to the fluid mosaic model because of
the liquid quality of the double layer

10

Membrane Proteins
Integral

or intrinsic

Extend from one

surface to the
other
Peripheral or
extrinsic
Attached to either
the inner or outer
surfaces of the lipid
bilayer
11

Marker Molecules
Allow

cells to identify
one another or other
molecules
Glycoproteins
Glycolipids

Examples:
Immune system
Recognition of
oocyte by sperm cell

12

Channel Proteins

Non-gated ion channels

Always open

Ligand-gated ion channel

Open in response to small

molecules that bind to
proteins or glycoproteins

Voltage-gated ion channel

Open when there is a
change in charge across the
plasma membrane

13

Receptors

Receptor

molecules

Exposed receptor
sites

Linked

to channel
proteins

Acetylcholine

Linked

to G proteins

Alter activity on
inner surface of
plasma membrane
14

Enzymes and Carrier Proteins

15

Movement through the Plasma

Membrane
Cell

membranes are selectively

permeable

Molecules

pass through the cell

membranes in 4 Ways:
Directly

through the phospholipid membrane

Membrane Channels
Carrier Molecules
Vesicles
16

Directly through the phospholipid

membrane
Molecules

that soluble in lipids such as

oxygen, carbon dioxide and steroids
pass through the cell membrane readily
by dissolving in the phospholipid bilayer.

17

Membrane Channels

18

Carrier Molecules
Large

molecules that are not lipid

soluble such as glucose and amino
acids cant pass unless they are
transported across cell membranes by
special carrier molecules

19

Membrane Transport
Mechanism:
Diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration
Mediated

transport mechanisms

Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Secondary active transport

20

Diffusion
Movement

of solutes from an area of

higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration in solution

21

Diffusion

22

Osmosis
Diffusion

of water (solvent) across a

selectively permeable membrane from a
region of higher water concentration to a lower
water concentration
Important because large volume changes
caused by water movement disrupts normal
cell function
Cell shrinkage or swelling
Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor swells
Hypertonic: cell shrinks (crenation)

Hypotonic: cell swells and bursts (lysis)

23

Osmosis

24

Osmosis

25

Filtration

Works like a sieve

Small particles move through holes with liquid

Depends on pressure difference on either side of partition

Larger particles cannot move beyond partition

Moves from side of greater pressure to lower

Example: In kidneys in urine formation

BP moves fluid from blood through filtration membrane
Water, ions, small molecules pass through partition; most

proteins and blood cells remain in blood

26

Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Involve carrier proteins

Characteristics

Specificity

To a single type of molecule

Competition
Saturation

Rate of transport limited to

number of available carrier
proteins
27

Mediated Transport Mechanisms

Facilitated diffusion

Active transport

Higher to lower concentration

without metabolic energy

Requires ATP
Moves against gradient

Secondary active transport

Ions or molecules move in

same (symport/ cotransport) or
different direction (antiport/
countertransport)

28

Secondary Active Transport

29

ENDOCYTOSIS VS
EXOCYTOSIS

30

Endocytosis

Uptake

of material
through the cell
membrane by the
formation of a
membrane- bound
sac called a vesicle
Types
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
31

endocytosis
Phagocytosis

cell eating when solid

particles are ingested
Pinocytosis Cell drinking much
smaller vesicles are formed that contain
liquid rather than particles
Receptor mediated endocytosis occurs if
endocytosis is triggered when a specific
substance binds to the receptor
molecules.
32

Pinocytosis and
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

33

Exocytosis
Accumulated

vesicle secretions expelled

from cell
Examples

Secretion of digestive enzymes by

pancreas
Secretion of mucus by salivary glands
Secretion of milk by mammary glands

34

Exocytosis

35

36

37

CYTOPLASM

38

CYTOPLASM

Cellular material outside

nucleus but inside plasma
membrane
Half cytosol, half organelles
Cytosol: Fluid portion
Cytoskeleton: Supports the
cell

Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments

Cytoplasmic inclusions

Melanin, hemoglobin, lipid

droplets
39

Organelles
Small

specialized structures for

particular
functions
Most have membranes that separate
interior of organelles from cytoplasm
Related to specific structure and function
of the cell

40

Centrioles
In

specialized zone
of microtubule
formation near
nucleus:Centrosome
Each unit consists of
9 triplet microtubules
Before cell division,
centrioles divide,
move to ends of cell
and become spindle
fibers
41

Cilia
Short

appendages
projecting from cell
surfaces
9 + 2 microtubule
arrangement
Capable of
movement
Moves materials
over the cell surface
42

Flagella

Similar

to cilia but

longer
Usually only one
exists per cell
Moves the cell itself
in wavelike fashion
Example: Sperm cell
43

Microvilli
Extensions

of
plasma membrane
Normally many on
each cell
Increase the cell
surface
One tenth to one
twentieth size of cilia
Do not move
44

Ribosomes

Sites

of protein
synthesis
Composed of a large
and small subunit,
each consisting of
rRNA
Types
Free
Attached to
Endoplasmic
reticulum

45

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Types

Rough

Smooth

Has attached ribosomes

Proteins produced and
modified for
secretions
Not attached ribosomes
Manufacture lipids

Cisternae: Interior spaces

isolated from rest of
cytoplasm

46

Golgi Apparatus

Modification,packagi

ng, distribution of
proteins and lipids
for secretion or
internal use
Flattened membrane
sacs stacked on
each other
47

Function of Golgi Appa

48

Action of Lysosomes

Membrane-bound
vesicles that pinch off
from Golgi
Hydrolytic enzymes for
intracellular digestion,
autophagia
WBCs have many
lysosomes to digest
bacteria
Important in bone
remodeling; digesting
damaged cells
49

Mitochondria

Provide energy for cell

Major site of ATP
synthesis
Membranes

Cristae: Infoldings of
inner membrane
Matrix: Substance
located in space formed
by inner membrane
50

Nucleus

DNA dispersed throughout

Consists of :
Nuclear envelope:
Separates nucleus from
cytoplasm and regulates
movement of materials in and
out
Chromatin: Condenses to
form chromosomes during
cell division
Nucleolus: Assembly site of
ribosomal units
51

52

53

54

55

Cell Life Cycle

56

Cellular Division

57

Cell Division
All

cells are derived from pre-

existing cells
New cells are produced for
growth and to replace damaged or
old cells
Differs in prokaryotes (bacteria)
and eukaryotes (protists, fungi,
plants, & animals)
58

Keeping Cells Identical

The instructions for
making cell parts
are encoded in the
DNA, so each new
cell must get a
complete set of the
DNA molecules
59

DNA Replication
DNA

must be
copied or
replicated before
cell division
Each new cell will
then have an
identical copy of
the DNA

Original DNA
strand
Two new,
identical DNA
strands

60

Identical Daughter Cells

Two
identical
daughter
cells
Parent Cell
61

Chromosomes

62

Eukaryotic Chromosomes
All

eukaryotic cells store genetic

information in chromosomes

Most

eukaryotes have between 10

and 50 chromosomes in their body
cells
Human body cells have 46
chromosomes or 23 identical pairs

63

Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Each

chromosome is composed of a
single, tightly coiled DNA molecule
Chromosomes cant be seen when
cells arent dividingand are called
chromatin

64

Compacting DNA into

Chromosomes
DNA

is
tightly
coiled
around
proteins
called
histones
65

Chromosomes in Dividing Cells

Duplicated

chromosomes are
called
chromatids &
are held
together by the
centromere
66
Called Sister Chromatids

Karyotype

A picture of the
chromosomes from
a human cell
arranged in pairs
by size
First 22 pairs are
called autosomes
Last pair are the
sex chromosomes
XX female or XY
male
67

Boy or Girl?
The Y Chromosome Decides

Y - Chromosome

X - Chromosome
68

Cell Reproduction

69

Types of Cell Reproduction

Asexual

reproduction involves a
single cell dividing to make 2 new,
identical daughter cells
Mitosis & binary fission are
examples of asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two
cells (egg & sperm) joining to make a
new cell (zygote) that is NOT
identical to the original cells
Meiosis is an example
70

The Cell Cycle

71

Five Phases of the Cell Cycle

G1

- primary growth phase

S synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 - secondary growth phase

collectively these 3 stages are

called interphase
M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis
72

Cell Cycle

73

Interphase - G1 Stage
1st

growth stage after cell

division
Cells mature by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
Cell carries on its normal
metabolic activities

74

Interphase S Stage

Synthesis stage
DNA is copied or replicated
Two
identical
copies of
DNA

Original DNA
75

Interphase G2 Stage
2nd

Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has been copied
All cell structures needed for
division are made (e.g. centrioles)
Both organelles & proteins are
synthesized
76

Whats Happening in Interphase?

What the cell looks like

Animal Cell

Whats occurring

77

Sketch the Cell Cycle

DNA Copied
Cells
Mature

Cells prepare for Division

Daughter
Cells
Cell Divides into Identical cells
78

Mitosis
79

Mitosis
Division

of the

nucleus
Also called
karyokinesis
Only occurs in
eukaryotes
Has four stages
Doesnt occur in
some cells such
as brain cells

80

Four Mitotic Stages

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

81

Early Prophase

Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form

visible chromosomes
Mitotic spindle forms from fibers in
cytoskeleton or centrioles (animal)
Cytoplasm

Nucleolus

Nuclear Membrane
Chromosomes

82

Late Prophase
Nuclear

membrane & nucleolus are

broken down
Chromosomes continue condensing &
are clearly visible
Spindle fibers called kinetochores
attach to the centromere of each
chromosome
Spindle finishes forming between the
poles of the cell
83

Late Prophase
Chromosomes

Nucleus & Nucleolus have disintegrated

84

Spindle Fiber attached to

Chromosome
Kinetochore Fiber

Chromosome

85

Review of Prophase
What the cell looks like

Whats happening

86

Spindle Fibers
The

mitotic spindle form from the

microtubules in plants and centrioles
in animal cells
Polar fibers extend from one pole of
the cell to the opposite pole
Kinetochore fibers extend from the
pole to the centromere of the
chromosome to which they attach
Asters are short fibers radiating
from centrioles
87

Sketch The Spindle

88

Metaphase
Chromosomes, attached to the kinetochore
fibers, move to the center of the cell
Chromosomes are now lined up at the equator

Equator of Cell
Pole of
the Cell

89

Metaphase
Asters at the
poles

Spindle
Fibers

Chromosomes
lined at the
Equator
90

Metaphase

Aster

Chromosomes at Equator
91

Review of Metaphase
What the cell looks like

Whats occurring
92

Anaphase

Occurs rapidly

Sister

chromatids are
pulled apart to
opposite poles of
the cell by
kinetochore
fibers
93

Anaphase

Sister
Chromatids
being
separated

94

Anaphase Review
What the cell
looks like

Whats
occurring

95

Telophase
Sister

chromatids at opposite

poles
Spindle disassembles
Nuclear envelope forms around
each set of sister chromatids
Nucleolus reappears
CYTOKINESIS occurs
Chromosomes reappear as
chromatin
96

Comparison of Anaphase & Telophase

97

Cytokinesis
Means

division of the cytoplasm

Division of cell into two,
identical halves called daughter
cells
In plant cells, cell plate forms
at the equator to divide cell
In animal cells, cleavage furrow
forms to split cell
98

Cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow
in animal cell

Cell plate in plant

cell

99

Mitotic Stages

100

Daughter Cells of Mitosis

Have

the same number of

chromosomes as each other and
as the parent cell from which
they were formed
Identical to each other, but
smaller than parent cell
Must grow in size to become
mature cells (G1 of Interphase)
101

Identical Daughter Cells

What is
the 2n or
diploid
number?

2
Chromosome number the same, but cells
smaller than parent cell
102

Review
of
Mitosis
103

Eukaryotic Cell Division

Used for growth and
repair
Produce two new cells
identical to the original
cell
Cells are diploid (2n)

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Chromosomes during
Metaphase of mitosis

Telophase
104

Cytokinesis

Mitosis Animation

Name each stage as you see it occur?

105

Draw & Learn these

Stages

106

Draw & Learn these

Stages

107

Test Yourself
over Mitosis
108

Mitosis Quiz

109

Mitosis Quiz

110

Name the Stages of Mitosis:

Early prophase

Early Anaphase

Metaphase

Interphase

Late Prophase

Late telophase,
Advanced cytokinesis

Early Telophase,
Begin cytokinesis

Mid-Prophase

Late
Anaphase
111

Identify the Stages

?
Early, Middle, & Late Prophase

?
Metaphase

Late Prophase

Anaphase

?
Late Anaphase

Telophase

?
Telophase &
Cytokinesis
112

Uncontrolled Mitosis

If mitosis is not
controlled, unlimited
cell division occurs
causing cancerous
tumors
Oncogenes are
special proteins that
increase the chance
that a normal cell
develops into a
tumor cell

Cancer cells
113

Meiosis

Formation of Gametes
(Eggs & Sperm)
114

Facts About Meiosis

Preceded

by interphase which
includes chromosome replication
Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis
I and Meiosis II
Called Reduction- division
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that
are monoploid (1n)
115

Facts About Meiosis

Daughter

cells contain half the

number of chromosomes as the
original cell
Produces gametes (eggs &
sperm)
Occurs in the testes in males
(Spermatogenesis)
Occurs in the ovaries in females
(Oogenesis)
116

More Meiosis Facts

Start with 46 double stranded
chromosomes (2n)
After 1 division - 23 double stranded
chromosomes (n)
After 2nd division - 23 single stranded
chromosomes (n)
Occurs in our germ cells that produce
gametes

117

Why Do we Need Meiosis?

It is the fundamental basis of sexual

reproduction

Two

haploid (1n) gametes are

brought together through
fertilization to form a diploid (2n)
zygote

118

Fertilization Putting it
all together
2n = 6
1n =3

119

Replication of Chromosomes
Replication

is the

process of
duplicating a
chromosome
Occurs prior to
division
Replicated copies
are called sister
chromatids
Held together at
centromere

Occurs in
Interphase

120

Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes

Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number

by half
Fertilization then restores the 2n number

from mom

from dad

child

too
much!
meiosis reduces
genetic content
The right
number!
121

Cellular Aspects of Aging

Aging involves lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids within

the cell
35% or more factors are genetic
Cellular clock: death of cell line after a certain number
of cell divisions
Death genes: turn on late in life
DNA damage: results in cell degeneration and death
Free radicals: direct damage (by atoms with unpaired
electrons) to DNA in somatic cells

Results in somatic mutations, cellular dysfunction, and

cell death
Mitochondrial damage: loss of energy to cell and bcell
death
122

TISSUES, GLANDS AND

MEMBRANES

123

Histology:

The Study of Tissues

4-124

Embryonic Tissue
Germ

layers

Endoderm
Inner

layer
Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives
Mesoderm
Middle

layer
Forms tissues as muscle, bone, blood vessels
Ectoderm
Outer

layer
Forms skin and neuroectoderm
4-125

Four Basic Types of Tissues

Epithelial
Epi

tissues

= on + thele = covering or lining

Connective

tissues
Muscle tissues
Nervous tissues

126

Epithelial Tissue, General Characteristics

Covers internal and external body
surfaces
Skin, digestive tract, respiratory
passages, and blood vessels
Comprises major tissue of glands

127

Epithelial Tissue, Unique characteristics

Consists mostly of cells

with very little
extracellular material
(matrix or ECM)
Lacks blood vessels

Gases, nutrients, &

waste diffuse across
basement membrane

Cells attached to
underlying tissue

Free membrane is not

touching any other cells

128

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

Protect underlying structures

Skin & oral cavity

Barrier

Skin keeps water in/out, prevents entrance of toxins

& microorganisms

Exchange of substances

O2 & CO2 diffused through lung epithelia between air

and blood

Secretion

Sweat glands, mucous glands, pancreas

Absorption

Carrier molecules in intestine absorb nutrients

129
(vitamins, ions, food molecules)

Classification of Epithelia
Classified based on number of cell layers
and cell shape
Simple epithelium 1 layer of cells
Stratified epithelium - >1 layer of cells
Squamous (flat and scale-like)
Cuboidal (cube shaped)
Columnar (tall and thin)

130

Layers or Arrangement
131

Shapes

132

133

Types of Epithelia
1) Simple squamous epithelia (lungs)
2) Simple cuboidal epithelia
3) Simple columnar epithelia
4) Pseudostratified columnar epithelia (w/cilia)
(trachea)
5) Stratified squamous epithelia
6) Transitional epithelium (bladder)

134

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Single layer of thin, flat
cells
Line blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels,
heart, alveoli, kidney
tubules, serous
membranes
Diffusion, filtration,
anti-friction, secretion,
absorption
135

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Single

layer of cubeshaped cells, some

with microvilli or cilia
Kidney tubules,
glands/ducts, brain,
bronchioles, ovary
surface
Secretion,
absorption,
movement of
particles
136

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Single

layer of tall,
narrow cells, some with
cilia/microvilli
Lining of stomach,
intestines, glands,
ducts, bronchioles,
auditory tubes, uterus,
uterine tubes
Secretion, absorption,
movement of
particles/oocytes
137

Pseudostratified Columnar
Epithelium
Single

layer of cells,
some tall and thin,
others not, nuclei at
different levels,
appear stratified,
almost always
ciliated
Lining of nasal
cavity, nasal
sinuses, auditory
tubes, pharynx,
trachea, bronchi
Synthesis/secretion/
movement of mucus
138

Transitional Epithelium
Stratified

cells
appear cuboidal
when not stretched
and squamous when
stretched
Lining of bladder,
ureters, superior
urethra
Deals with changing
volume of fluid in an
organ, protects from
urine contact
139

Simple Columnar Epithelium

140

Simple Squamous Epithelium

141

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

142

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

143

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

144

Transitional Epithelium
[bladder]

145

Structural & Functional

Relationships
Cell

Layers & Cell Shapes

Single

layers control passage of materials

through epithelium
Gas

diffusion across lung alveoli

Fluid filtration across kidney membranes
Gland secretion
Nutrient absorption in intestines
Multiple

layers protect underlying tissues

Damaged

cells replaced by underlying cells

Protect from abrasion (ex: skin, anal canal,
vagina)
146

Structural & Functional

Relationships
Cell

Layers & Cell Shapes, continued

Flat/thin

(squamous) diffusion, filtration

Diffusion

in lung alveoli
Fluid filtration in kidney tubules
Cuboidal/columnar

secretion, absorption;
contain more organelles
Secretory

vesicles (mucus) in stomach lining

Mucus protects against digestive enzymes and acid

Secretion/absorption

in kidney tubules made

possible by ATP production by multiple
mitochondria

Active transport of molecules into/out of kidney

147

Structural & Functional

Relationships
Free

Cell Surfaces

Smooth
blood

reduces friction

vessel lining smooth blood flow

Microvilli

increase cell surface area; cells

involved in absorption or secretion
Small

Cilia

intestine lining

propel materials along cells surface

Nasal

cavity/trachea moves dust and other

materials to back of throat (swallowed/cough up)
Goblet cells secrete mucus to entrap the junk
148

Structural & Functional

Relationships

Cell Connections

Tight junctions bind adjacent cells

together
Permeability layers prevent
passage of materials
Intestinal lining and most simple
epithelia
Desmosomes anchor cells to one
another
Hemidesmosomes anchor cells to
basement membrane
Epithelia subject to stress (skin
stratified squamous)
Gap Junctions allow passage of
molecules/ions between adjacent calls
(communication)
Most epithelia
149

Glands
Gland

multicellular structure secreting

substance onto a surface, into a cavity, or into
the blood

Exocrine gland (exo-outside + krino-to separate): glands

with ducts; secretions pass through ducts onto a
surface or into an organ
Simple ducts w/o branches
Compound ducts w/ branches
Tubular tubes
Acinus/alveolus saclike

Endocrine gland (endo-within): glands w/o ducts

Hormones are secreted into blood

150

Exocrine Gland Structures

151

Exocrine Gland Structures

152

Connective Tissue
The most abundant and widely
distributed tissue in the body
Multiple types, appearances and
functions
Relatively few cells in extracellular
matrix (think: fruit cells floating or
suspended in Jell-O)
Protein fibers
Ground substance
Fluid
153

Structure of Connective Tissue

Three types of protein fibers:
Collagen fibers:
Rope-like;

Reticular

resist stretching

fibers:

Fine,

short collagen fibers; branched for

support

Elastic

fibers:

Coiled;

stretch and recoil to original shape

154

Structure of Connective Tissue,

continued
Ground

substance combination of
proteins and other molecules
Varies

from fluid to semisolid to solid

Proteoglycans

protein/polysaccharide
complex that traps water

155

Naming of Connective Tissue Cells

Based

on function:

Blast (germ) produce matrix

Cyte (cell) cells maintain it
Clast (break) cells break down for remodeling

Osteoblast (osteo-bone) form bone

Osteocyte maintain bone
Osteoclast break down bone

Macrophage (makros-large + phago-to eat) large,

mobile cells that ingest foreign substances found in
connective tissue
Mast Cells nonmotile cells that release chemicals
that promote inflammation

156

Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Enclose organs and separate organs
and tissues from one another
Liver, kidney; muscles, blood vessels,
nerves
2. Connect tissue to each other
Tendons muscles to bone
Ligaments bone to bone
3. Support and movement
Bones, cartilage, joints
157

Functions of Connective Tissue,

continued
4. Storage
Fat stores energy; bone stores calcium
5. Cushion and insulation
Fat cushions/protects/insulates (heat)
6. Transportation
Blood transports gases, nutrients,
enzymes, hormones, immune cells
7. Protection
Immune & blood cells protect against
toxins/tissue injury; bones protect
underlying structures
158

Classification of Connective Tissues

159

Loose connective tissue

Composition: ECM has

fibroblasts, other cells,
collagen, fluid-filled
spaces
Functions: forms thin
membranes between
organs and binds them
(loose packing material)
Locations: widely
distributed, between
glands, muscles, nerves,
attaches skin to tissues,
superficial layer of
dermis
160

Adipose Connective Tissue

Composition:

very little
ECM (has collagen and
elastic fibers); large
adipocytes filled with lipid
Functions: Stores fat,
energy source, thermal
insulator, protection/
packing material
Locations: Beneath the
skin, in breasts, within
bones, in loose
connective tissues,
around organs (kidneys
and heart)
161

Dense Fibrous/Collagenous
Connective Tissue

Composition: ECM
mostly collagen (made
by fibroblasts),
orientation varies
Functions: withstands
pulling forces, resists
stretching in direction of
fibers orientation
Locations: tendons,
ligaments, dermis of
skin, organ capsules

162

163

Dense Elastic Connective Tissue

Composition: ECM
collagen and elastic
fibers; orientation
varies
Functions: stretches
and recoils; strength
in direction of fiber
orientation
Locations: arterial
walls, vertebral
ligaments, dorsal
neck, vocal cords
164

Cartilage
Chondrocytes

(cartilage cells) inside lacunae

(small spaces)
Matrix composition (ECM):

Collagen flexibility & strength

Water (trapped by proteoglycans) rigidity and
flexibility
No blood vessels slow healing, cant bring
cells/nutrients

Three

types:

Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage

165

Types & Locations of Cartilage

166

Examples of Cartilage

167

Hyaline Cartilage

Composition: solid
matrix, small evenly
distributed collagen
fibers, transparent matrix,
chondrocytes in lacunae
Functions: supports
structures, some
flexibility, forms smooth
joint surfaces
Locations: costal
cartilages of ribs,
respiratory cartilage rings,
nasal cartilages, bone
ends, epiphyseal (growth)
plates, embryonic
skeleton
168

169

Fibrocartilage

Composition: similar to
hyaline, numerous
collagen fibrous
arranged in thick
bundles
Functions: somewhat
flexible, withstands
great pressure,
connects structures
under great pressure
Locations:
intervertebral disks,
pubic symphysis,
articulating cartilage of
some joints (knee, TMJ)
170

Elastic Cartilage
Composition:

similar
to hyaline cartilage,
abundant elastic fibers
Functions: rigidity,
more flexibility than
hyaline (elastic fibers
recoil to original
shape)
Locations: external
ears, epiglottis,
auditory tubes
171

Bone

Composition: hard,
mineralized matrix,
osteocytes inside
lacunae, lamellae
layers
Functions: strength,
support, protects
organs,
muscle/ligament
attachments,
movement (joints)
Locations: all bones
of body
172

173

174

Blood

Composition: blood cells

in a fluid matrix (plasma)
Functions: transportation
(O2, CO2, hormones,
nutrients, waste, etc.),
protect from infection,
temperature regulation
Locations: in blood
vessels and heart,
produced by red bone
marrow, WBCs leave
blood vessels and enter
tissues
175

176

Muscle Tissue

General features:

Can contract
Contractile

proteins

Enables movement of
the structures that are
attached to them
Muscle fibers = cells

Three (3) types of muscle

tissue:
skeletal
smooth
cardiac

177

Skeletal Muscle
Composition:

striated muscle
fibers, large,
cylindrical cells that
have many nuclei
near periphery
Functions: body
movement,
voluntary control
Locations:
attached to bone
178

Cardiac Muscle
Composition:

cylindrical cells,
striated, single
nucleus, branched
and connected with
intercalated disks
Functions: pump
blood, involuntary
control
Locations: heart
179

Smooth Muscle

Composition: cells
tapered at each end, not
striated, single nucleus
Functions: regulates
organ size, forces fluid
through tubes, regulates
amount of light entering
eye, goose bumps,
involuntary control
Locations: walls of hollow
organs and tubes
(stomach, intestine, blood
vessels), eye
180

Nervous Tissue
Forms

brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

Functions:
Conscious control of skeletal muscles
Unconscious control of cardiac muscles
Self and environmental awareness
Emotions
Reasoning skills
Memory

Action

potentials = electrical signals responsible

for communication between neurons and other
cells
181

Nervous Tissue Structure

Neurons = conducts
action potentials (a.p.s)

Cell body = contains

nucleus, site of general
cell functions
Dendrite = conduct a.p.s
toward cell body
Axon = conducts a.p.s
away from cell body

Neuroglia = support cells:

nourish, protect, insulate
neurons
182

183

Membranes
Thin

sheet/layer of tissue covering a

structure or lining a cavity
Made of epithelium & connective tissue
Types:
Mucous

membranes
Serous membranes
Skin/cutaneous membranes
Synovial membranes
Periosteum
184

Membranes
Mucous
Serous
Synovial

185

Mucous Membranes
Structure:

various types of epithelia resting on a

thick layer of connective tissue
Locations: line cavities that opening to outside of
body (digestive, respiratory, excretory,
reproductive tracts)
Mucous glands secrete mucus
Functions:
Protection oral cavity (stratified squamous epithelium)
Absorption intestine (simple columnar epithelium)
Secretion mucus and digestive enzymes in intestine

186

Serous Membranes
Structure:

simple squamous epithelium

resting on delicate layer of loose
connective tissue
Locations: line trunk cavities, cover
organs
Mucous glands secrete serous fluid onto
membrane surface
Function: prevent damage from abrasion
between organs in thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities
187

Types of Serous Membranes

Pleural

membranes lungs

Pleurisy

inflammation of pleural
membranes

Pericardial

membranes heart

Pericarditis

inflammation of pericardium

Peritoneal

membranes
abdominopelvic
Peritonitis

inflammation of peritoneum

188

More Serous Membranes

Skin/cutaneous

membranes

Stratified squamous
epithelium & dense
connective tissue
Skin

Synovial

membranes

Connective tissue
Line joint cavities

Periosteum

Connective tissue
Surrounds bone

189

Inflammation
In

response to tissue damage

Viral/bacterial

infections

Trauma

Functions:
Mobilize

bodys defenses
Destroy microorganisms, foreign materials,
damaged cells
Pave way for tissue repair
190

Symptoms of Inflammation
Redness
Heat
Swelling
Pain
Disturbance

of function

* Inflammation is beneficial, though

painful!
191

Inflammatory Response
of inflammation cause dilation
permeability of blood vessels (redness/heat)

Mediators

Bring blood and important substances to site

Edema

= swelling (water, proteins, etc.) of

tissues
Fibrin = protein that walls off site; keeps
infection from spreading
Neutrophils ingest bacteria (phagocytic WBC)
Macrophage ingest tissue debris
Pus = mixture of dead neutrophils, cells, fluid
192

Inflammation is
adaptive:
Inflammation

warns
person from further injury:
Pain
Limitation

of movement

(edema)
Tissue destruction
Fibroclast migrate to
damaged tissue and
digest

193

Tissue Repair
Substitution

of viable cells for dead cells

Regeneration

= same type of cells takes

place of previous cells; same function
Replacement = different type of tissue
develops; forms scars; loss of some
function
Fibroclast lays down fibrin and forms scar
tissue
Type of tissue repair is determined by:
Wound

severity
Tissue types involved

194

Not all cells divide alike

Labile

cells (not fixed)

Divide continuously through life

Skin, mucous membranes

Stable

cells

Dont actively divide, but can after injury

Connective tissue, glands (liver, pancreas)

Permanent

cells

Little to no ability to divide

Neurons, skeletal muscle

If killed, replaced by connective tissue

Recover from limited damage (axon of neuron)

195

Review steps of tissue repair:

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

Clot (fibrin)
Scab (seal)
Blood vessel
dilation
Fibroclast-clean
up
Fibrin walls off
Epithelium
replaced
Scab sloughs
Fibroblasts form
granulation
tissue
Wound
contracture
196

Its tough getting old

Tissue

changes with age:

neurons and muscle cells

visual acuity, smell, taste, touch
in functional capacities of respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
Slower cell division means slower healing
flexibility (irregular collagen fibers in tendons &
ligaments)
elasticity (elastic fibers bind to Ca2+, becoming
brittle) makes skin wrinkled too
Atherosclerosis plaques in blood vessels

197

END

198