1.

DNA,RNAstructure
2.DNAreplication
3.Transcription,translation

DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides

DNA is a nucleic acid, made of long chains of
nucleotides
Phosphate
group
Nitrogenous
base
Sugar
Phosphate
group

Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or T)

Nucleotide

Thymine (T)

Sugar
(deoxyribose)

DNA nucleotide
Polynucleotide

Sugar-phosphate backbone

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 10.2A

 DNA has four kinds of bases, A, T, C, and G

Thymine (T)

Cytosine (C)
Pyrimidines

Adenine (A)

Guanine (G)
Purines

Figure 10.2B

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 RNA is also a nucleic acid

different sugar
U instead of T
Single strand, usually
Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or U)
Phosphate
group

Uracil (U)

Sugar
(ribose)
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 10.2C, D

DNA is a double-stranded helix

James Watson and Francis Crick worked out
the three-dimensional structure of DNA, based
on work by Rosalind Franklin

Figure 10.3A, B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Hydrogen bonds between bases hold the

strands together: A and T, C and G
Hydrogen bond

Ribbon model

Partial chemical structure

Computer model
Figure 10.3D

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Untwisting and replication of DNA

each strand is a template for a new strand

helicase

DNApolymerase

Figure 10.4B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

HowcanentirechromosomesbereplicatedduringSphase?

DNA replication begins at many specific sites

Origin of replication

Parental strand
Daughter strand

Bubble

Two daughter DNA molecules

Figure 10.5A
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Each strand of the

double helix is
oriented in the
opposite direction

5 end

3 end

P
Figure 10.5B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3 end

5 end

 DNA
polymerase
works in
only one
direction
Telomere
sequences
are lost
with each
replication.

DNA polymerase
molecule
5 end

Daughter strand
synthesized
continuously

Parental DNA
5
3

Daughter
strand
synthesized
in pieces
3
5

5
3

Cancer,
aging
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

3
5

telomeres

DNA ligase

Overall direction of replication

Figure 10.5C

 The information constituting an organisms

genotype is carried in its sequence of bases
The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is
translated into the polypeptide
DNA

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

TRANSLATION
Protein
Figure 10.6A
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Transcription produces genetic messages in the

form of mRNA

RNA
polymerase

RNA nucleotide

Direction of
transcription
Template
strand of DNA
Figure 10.9A

Newly made RNA

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

RNA polymerase

In transcription,
DNA helix unzips

DNA of gene
Promoter
DNA

RNA nucleotides line

up along one strand
of DNA, following the
base-pairing rules
single-stranded
messenger RNA peels
away and DNA
strands rejoin

Initiation

Elongation

Terminator
DNA

Area shown
in Figure 10.9A

Termination
Growing
RNA

Completed RNA

Figure 10.9B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

RNA
polymerase

RNA transcripts of DNA

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving

the nucleus
Noncoding
segments,
introns, are
spliced out

Exon Intron

Exon

Intron

Exon

DNA
Cap
RNA
transcript
with cap
and tail

A cap and a tail

are added to the
ends

Transcription
Addition of cap and tail

Introns removed

Tail

Exons spliced together

mRNA
Coding sequence
NUCLEUS

CYTOPLASM

Figure 10.10
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Translation of nucleic acids into amino acids

The words of the DNA language are triplets
of bases called codons
The codons in a gene specify the amino acid
sequence of a polypeptide

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Gene 1

Gene 3

DNA molecule

Gene 2

DNA strand

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA
Codon
TRANSLATION

Polypeptide
Figure 10.7

Amino acid

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Virtuallyallorganismssharethesamegeneticcode
unityoflife
Second Base
C

UUU
UUC
UUA
UUG

CUU
CUC
CUA
CUG

AUU
AUC
ile
AUA
AUG met (start)

ACU
ACC
ACA
ACG

GUU
GUC
GUA
GUG

GCU
GCC
GCA
GCG

UCU
UCC
UCA
UCG

phe
leu

CCU
CCC
CCA
CCG

leu

val

A
ser

UAU
UAC
UAA
UAG

pro

CAU
CAC
CAA
CAG

thr

AAU
AAC
AAA
AAG

ala

GAU
GAC
GAA
GAG

G
tyr
stop
stop
his
gln
asn
lys
asp
glu

UGU
UGC
UGA
UGG
CGU
CGC
CGA
CGG
AGU
AGC
AGA
AGG
GGU
GGC
GGA
GGG

cys
stop
trp
arg

ser
arg

gly

U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G

Third Base

First Base

 An exercise in translating the genetic code

Transcribed strand

DNA

Transcription

RNA

Start
codon

Polypeptide
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Translation

Stop
codon

Figure 10.8B

Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters

during translation
In the cytoplasm, a
ribosome attaches
to the mRNA and
translates its
message into a
polypeptide
The process is aided
by transfer RNAs

Amino acid attachment site

Hydrogen bond

RNA polynucleotide chain

Anticodon
Figure 10.11A
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Each tRNA molecule has a triplet anticodon on

one end and an amino acid attachment site on
the other
Amino acid
attachment
site

Anticodon
Figure 10.11B, C
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ribosomes build polypeptides

Next amino acid

to be added to
polypeptide

Growing
polypeptide
tRNA
molecules

P site

A site
Growing
polypeptide

Large
subunit

tRNA

P
mRNA
binding
site

mRNA

Codons

mRNA

Small
subunit

Figure 10.12A-C
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

An initiation codon marks the start of an

mRNA message

AUG=methionine
Start of genetic message

End

Figure 10.13A

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 mRNA, a specific tRNA, and the ribosome

subunits assemble during initiation

Large
ribosomal
subunit

Initiator tRNA
P site

A site

Start
codon
mRNA

Small ribosomal
subunit

1
Figure 10.13B
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Elongation
The mRNA moves a codon at a time relative to
the ribosome
A tRNA pairs with each codon, adding an amino
acid to the growing polypeptide
A STOP codon causes the mRNA-ribosome
complex to fall apart

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Amino acid
Polypeptide
A
site

P site

Anticodon

mRNA
1 Codon recognition

mRNA
movement

Stop
codon
New
peptide
bond

3 Translocation
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2 Peptide bond
formation

Figure 10.14

Redobject=?

Whatmoleculesarepresent
inthisphoto?

Table 14.2
Types of RNA
Type of RNA

Functions in

Messenger RNA
(mRNA)

Nucleus,
migrates
to ribosomes
in cytoplasm

Transfer RNA
(tRNA)

Cytoplasm

Provides linkage
between mRNA
and amino acids;
transfers amino
acids to ribosomes

Ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)

Cytoplasm

Structural
component
of ribosomes

Function
Carries DNA
sequence
information to
ribosomes

Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell

is DNARNAprotein
The sequence of codons in DNA spells out the
primary structure of a polypeptide
Polypeptides form proteins that cells and
organisms use

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Mutations can change the meaning of genes

Mutations are changes in the DNA base
sequence
caused by errors in DNA replication or by
mutagens
change of a single DNA nucleotide causes
sickle-cell disease

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Normal hemoglobin DNA

mRNA

Mutant hemoglobin DNA

mRNA

Normal hemoglobin
Glu

Figure 10.16A

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Val

 Types of mutations
NORMAL GENE

mRNA
Protein

Met

Lys

Phe

Gly

Ala

Lys

Phe

Ser

Ala

BASE SUBSTITUTION

Met

Missing

BASE DELETION

Met

Lys

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Leu

Ala

His

Figure 10.16B

Chromosomal changes can be large or small

Deletion

Homologous
chromosomes

Duplication

Inversion

Reciprocal
translocatio
n

Nonhomologous
chromosomes
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 8.23A, B

 Summary of
transcription
and
translation

TRANSCRIPTION

DNA

mRNA
RNA
polymerase

Stage 1 mRNA is
transcribed from a
DNA template.

Amino acid
TRANSLATION
Enzyme

Stage 2 Each amino

acid attaches to its
proper tRNA with the
help of a specific
enzyme and ATP.

tRNA

Initiator
tRNA

mRNA

Figure 10.15
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Anticodon
Large
ribosomal
subunit
Start
Codon

Small
ribosomal
subunit

Stage 3 Initiation of
polypeptide synthesis
The mRNA, the first
tRNA, and the
ribosomal subunits
come together.

New
peptide
bond
forming

Growing
polypeptide

Codons

Stage 4 Elongation
A succession of tRNAs
add their amino acids to
the polypeptide chain as
the mRNA is moved
through the ribosome,
one codon at a time.

mRNA
Polypeptide

Stop Codon

Figure 10.15 (continued)

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Stage 5 Termination
The ribosome recognizes
a stop codon. The polypeptide is terminated and
released.