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RT Level I Basic
RT Level I Basic
RT Level I Basic
Level I
Radiographic Testing
Lesson 1
Introduction to
Radiographic Testing
Radiography
1. In radiography, test objects are
exposed to X-rays, gamma rays
or neutrons, and an image is
processed.
Radiography
2. Radiography is used to test a variety of
products, such as castings, forgings
and weldments. It is also used heavily
in the aerospace industry for the
detection of cracks in airframes
structures, detection of water in
honeycomb structures and for foreign
object detection.
Test Objective
The objective of radiographic testing is to
ensure product reliability. Performing the
actual radiographic test is only part of
the procedure. The results of the test
must then be interpreted to acceptance
standards by qualified personnel, and an
evaluation of the results must be made.
Safety Considerations
Radiation can cause damage to the
cells of living tissue, so it is essential
that personnel be aware and
protected. Compliance with state and
federal safety regulations is
mandatory.
Qualification
1. It is important that personnel
responsible for radiographic testing
have adequate training, education
and experience.
2. Guidelines are for the qualification
and certification of nondestructive
testing personnel.
Qualification
3. ASNT has published guidelines for
training and qualifying nondestructive
testing (NDT) personnel since 1966.
These are known as: Personnel
Qualification and Certification in
Nondestructive Testing:
Recommended Practice No. SNTTC-1A.
Qualification
4. Recommended Practice No.
SNT-TC-1A describes the
knowledge and capabilities of
nondestructive testing personnel
in terms of certification levels.
Qualification
5. Per SNT-TC-1A, there are three
basic levels of qualification applied
to nondestructive testing personnel:
a. Level I.
b. Level II.
c. Level III.
Certification
1. The formal certification of a person in
nondestructive testing to a
Level I, Level II and Level III is a written
testimony that the individual has been
properly qualified.
2. Certification is meant to document the
actual qualification of the individual in a
specific nondestructive testing method.
Certification
3. Proper qualification and
certification is extremely
important in modern
manufacturing, fabrication and
inservice inspection due to the
impact on the health and safety
of the public.
Lesson 2
Radiographic Testing Principles
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
1. X-rays and gamma rays have the ability
to penetrate materials, including
materials that do not transmit light.
2. Depending on the thickness and density
of the material, and the intensity of the
source being used, the amount of
radiation that is transmitted through the
test object will vary.
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
3. The radiation transmitted
through the test object produces
the radiographic image.
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
The following figure illustrates the
partial absorption characteristics of
radiation. Thicker portions of the test
object or dense inclusions will appear
lighter because of more absorption of
the radiation.
Image Distortion
Two possible causes of radiographic
image distortion are:
1. The test object and the film/
detector plane are not parallel.
2. The radiation beam is not directed
perpendicular to the film/detector plane.
X-Rays
The conditions required to generate
X-rays are:
1. A source of electrons.
2. A suitable target for electrons to
strike.
3. A means of speeding the electrons
in the desired direction.
X-Rays
Characteristic X-rays: When an
electron of sufficient energy
interacts with an orbital electron
of an atom, then characteristic
X-rays may be generated.
X-Rays
Continuous radiation: The
generated X-rays have a continuous
energy spectrum and not entirely
dependent on the disturbed atoms
characteristics.
X-Rays
Bremsstrahlung radiation: This is a
German name for braking or
continuous radiation.
X-Rays
KeV (kilo-electron volts): The
unit corresponds to the amount
of kinetic energy that an electron
would gain when moving
between two points that differ in
voltage by 1 kV.
X-Rays
MeV (1000,000 electron volts): This
unit corresponds to the amount of
kinetic energy of electrons when
moving between two points that
different by 1MV.
Electron Source
1. When a suitable material is heated,
some of its charged negative particles
(electrons) become agitated and
escape the material as free electrons.
2. Cathode: In an X-ray tube, a coil of
wire (filament) is the source of
electrons (known as the cathode).
Electron Target
For industrial radiography
application, a solid material of
high atomic number, usually
tungsten, is used as the target in
the tube anode.
Electron Acceleration
1. By placing a positive charge on
the anode of an X-ray tube and a
negative charge on the cathode,
free electrons are accelerated
from the cathode to the anode.
2. The electron path should be in a
vacuum.
Radiation Intensity
1. The number of X-rays created
by electrons striking the
target is one measure of the
intensity of the X-ray beam.
2. Intensity depends on the
amount of electrons available
at the X-ray tube cathode.
Radiation Intensity
3. Keeping the other factors constant,
an increase in the current through the
tube filament will increase the
cathode temperature, causing
emission of more electrons and
consequently increasing the intensity
of the X-ray beam.
Radiation Intensity
4. Similarly, though to a lesser
degree, an increase in the applied
tube voltage will increase the
beam intensity.
5. The output rating of an X-ray tube
is expressed in volts (kV or MeV).
Photoelectric Absorption
1. In photoelectric absorption, when
X-rays (photons) with relatively low
energy pass through matter, the
photon energy may be transferred to
an orbital electron (see the following
figure).
Photoelectric Absorption
2. Part of the energy is expended in
ejecting the electron from its orbit,
and the remainder gives velocity to
the electron.
Photoelectric Absorption
3. This phenomenon usually takes
place with low energy photons
of 0.5 MeV or less.
4. It is this absorption effect that
makes radiography possible.
Compton Effect
1. When higher energy photons (0.1 to
3 MeV) pass through matter, part of the
photon energy is expended in ejecting
an electron. The remaining slower
energy photons travel at different
angles compared to the original photon
path (see the following figure).
Compton Effect
2. This process, progressively
weakening the photon, is
repeated until the photoelectric
effect completely absorbs the
last photon.
Pair Production
Pair production occurs only with
higher energy photons of 1.02 MeV
or more (see the following figure).
Scatter Radiation
1. The major components of scatter
radiation are the low energy rays
represented by photons weakened
in the compton process.
2. Scatter radiation is low-level energy
content and of random direction.
Internal Scatter
1. Internal scatter is the scattering that
occurs in the object being
radiographed (see the following
figure).
Internal Scatter
2. It affects image definition by
blurring the image outline.
3. The increase in radiation
passing through matter caused
by scatter in the forward
direction is known as buildup.
Sidescatter
1. Sidescatter is the scattering from
walls and the surrounding of the
object in the vicinity of the test
object that cause rays to enter the
sides of the test object.
2. Sidescatter obscures the image
outline just as internal scatter does.
Backscatter
1. Backscatter is the scattering of
rays from the surface or from
objects beneath or behind the test
object (see the following figure).
2. Backscatter also obscures the
test object.
Gamma Rays
1. Gamma rays are produced by
the disintegration of the nuclei of
a radioactive isotope.
2. Isotopes are varieties of the
same chemical element having
different atomic weights.
Gamma Rays
3. The wavelength and intensity of
gamma waves are determined by
the source isotope characteristics
and cannot be controlled or
changed.
Artificial Sources
1. There are two ways of manufacturing
radioactive isotopes, or so-called
radioisotopes:
a. By using the by product of
nuclear fission in atomic reactors,
like cesium-137 (Cs-137).
Artificial Sources
b. By bombarding certain elements
with neutrons to make them unstable.
Examples are:
cobalt-60 (Co-60), thulium-170
(Tm170), selenium-75 (Se-75) and
iridium-192 (Ir-192).
2. These artificial isotopes emit gamma
rays, and alpha and beta particles.
Specific Activity
1. Specific activity is defined as the
degree of concentration of
radioactive material within a
gamma ray source.
2. Specific activity is expressed in
terms of curies per gram or curies
per cubic centimeter.
Specific Activity
3. Specific activity is an important
measure of radioisotopes
because the smaller the source,
the sharper the radiographic
image that can be produced (as
shown in the following figure).
Half Life
1. The length of time required for the
activity of a radioisotope to decay to
one half of its initial intensity is
called its half life.
2. The half life of a radioisotope is a
basic characteristic, and depends on
the particular isotope of a given
element.
Half Life
3. Dated decay curves (similar to one
shown in the next slide) are supplied
by source suppliers for each
particular radioisotope and should be
used by radiographers to determine
the exact source intensity.
Lesson 3
Equipment
X-Ray Equipment
There are three basic requirements
for the generation of X-rays:
1. A source of free electrons.
1. A means of rapidly accelerating
the beam of electrons.
2. A suitable target material to stop
the electrons.
X-Ray Tube
The main components of any
X-ray equipment are:
1. Tube: Enclosed in a high vacuum
envelope of heat resistant glass or
ceramic.
2. Cathode: To produce free electros.
3. Anode: Target which the
electrodes strike.
X-Ray Tube
Associated with the tube are the following
parts:
1. Equipment that heats the filament,
accelerates, and controls the resultant
free electrons.
2. Equipment to remove the heat
generated by the X-rays.
3. Shielding of the equipment.
X-Ray Tube
There are many varieties in the
size and shape of X-ray tubes.
Tube Envelope
1. Tube envelope is constructed of
glass or ceramic that has:
a. A high melting point.
b. Sufficient strength.
2. For the following reasons, a high
vacuum environment for the tube
element is necessary.
Tube Envelope
a. Preventing oxidation of the
electrode material.
b. Permits ready passage of the
electron beam without ionization of
gas within the tube.
c. Provides electrical insulation
between the electrodes.
Cathode
Cathode of X-ray tubes consists of:
1. Focusing cup: Functions as
an electrostatic lens.
2. Filament: A coil of tungsten
wire that produces a cloud of
electrons by flowing an
electrical current through it.
Filament Heating
1. A small flow of current through the filament
is enough to heat it to a temperature that
causes electron emission.
2. A change in the number of emitted
electrons varies with the current flow
through the filament.
3. The tube current is measured in
milliamperes (mA), and it controls the
intensity of X-rays.
Anode
3. A dense target material is
required to ensure a maximum
number of collisions.
4. Material with a high melting point
is necessary for a target to
withstand the excessive heat.
Focal Spot
1. The image sharpness is partly
determined by the size of the
focal spot.
2. The electron beam is focused so
that a rectangular area of the
target is bombarded by the
beam.
Focal Spot
3. The projected area of the
electron beam is the effective
focal spot (as seen in the
following slide).
4. The size to which the focal spot
can be reduced is limited by the
heat generated in target
bombardment.
Linear Accelerators
There are two types of linear
accelerators:
1. Standing wave linear accelerator
for energy up to 200 MeV.
2. Traveling wave linear
accelerator for energy up to 30
GeV (giga-electron volts,
or
billion electron volts).
Accelerating Potential
1. The applied potential between the
cathode and anode determines the
penetrating effect of the produced X-ray.
2. The higher the voltage, the greater the
electron velocity and the shorter
wavelengths and more penetrating
power for the generated X-rays.
Heat Dissipation
1. X-ray generation is a very
inefficient process; most of the
electron energy is expended in
producing heat.
2. Heat dissipation in the X-ray tube is
done by a flow of oil, gas or water.
Heat Dissipation
3. Efficiency of an X-ray tube
cooling system is the main factor
in determining the duty cycle of
the tube.
Equipment Shielding
1. To prevent unwanted radiation,
lead is used to shield the X-ray
tube.
2. The design of this shielding varies
with different X-ray tubes, but in
all cases, it serves to absorb that
portion of the radiation that is not
traveling in the desired direction.
Control Panel
1. The control panel of an X-ray
system is designed to permit a
radiographer to set the desired
exposure parameters.
2. The control panel also provides
critical indications for tube
performance, such as cooling
system, flow of cooling oil, or water.
Radium
1. Radium is a natural radioactive
substance having a half life of
about 1600 years.
2. Most radium sources consist of
radium sulfate packaged in
either spherical or cylindrical
capsules.
Radium
3. Because of its low specific
activity and its long half life,
radium is rarely used in industrial
radiography.
Artificial Radioisotopes
1. The artificial radioisotopes used in
industrial radiography or gauging
purposes are:
1. Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
2. Iridium-192 (Ir-192).
3. Selenium-75 (Se-75).
4. Thulium-170 (Tm-170).
5. Cesium-137 (Cs-137).
Artificial Radioisotopes
2. The following table gives a
summary of the main
characteristics of the most used
isotopes.
Radioisotope characteristics
Isotope Cameras
1. The equipment to accomplish
safe handling and storage of
radioisotopes is called a camera
or exposure device.
2. These cameras are self
contained units, meaning no
external power supply is required.
Isotope Cameras
3. The exposure devices contain
self locking mechanisms
ensuring safety in accordance
with ANSI and ISO requirements,
in addition to NRC and IAEA
requirements.
Lesson 4
Radiographic Film
Introduction
1. Radiographic film consists of:
a. Base: A thin, transparent plastic
sheet.
b. Emulsion coat: Coat of an
emulsion of gelatin on one or both
sides about 0.001 in.
(0.003 cm)
thick. The
emulsion coat
contains
very fine grains of
silver bromide (AgBr).
Introduction
2. Latent (hidden) image:
Exposure of radiation on the film
that cannot be detected until
chemical processing occurs.
3. Visible image: Image on the
film after developed by chemical
processing.
Usefulness of Radiographs
1. Film density: Degree of darkening
on the developed film.
2. Radiographic contrast:
Difference between two film areas.
Darker area (higher density) has
received more radiation compared
to the area of light density.
Usefulness of Radiographs
3. Definition: Sharpness of any
change in film density.
4. Contrast and definition are
important for a successful
interpretation of radiographs.
Radiographic Contrast
1. The film density D is logarithmic value
defined as:
D = log10 (I0/I)
where (I0) is the intensity of the incident
light to view the film, and I is the intensity
of the transmitted light through the film.
The higher the number, the darker the
film.
Radiographic Contrast
2. If the intensity of light is 1000
units and the film allows only
one unit of that intensity to pass
through, the film density based
on the previous equation will be:
D = log10 (1000/1) = 3
Radiographic Contrast
3. Radiographic contrast (as shown
in the following figure) is defined
as the difference in the film
density between two selected
areas of the exposed and
developed film.
Radiographic Contrast
4. Higher contrast is better for film
interpretation.
5. Radiographic contrast is a
combination of:
a. Subject contrast.
b. Film contrast.
Radiographic Contrast
6. Radiographic contrast depends on:
a. Applied radiation energy
(penetrating quality).
b. Contrast characteristics of the
film.
Radiographic Contrast
d. Film screen.
e. Film processing.
f. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
1. Subject contrast is the relative
radiation intensities passing
through any two selected
portions of material. Subject
contrast depends on the
following factors:
Subject Contrast
a. Type and shape of the test object.
b. Energy of the applied energy
radiation wavelength, type of
source.
c. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
2. Subject contrast decreases as
the wavelength of the incident
radiation decreases.
Subject Contrast
3. Higher subject contrast can be
achieved by:
a. Larger thickness variation.
b. Use of different X-ray or
gamma ray energies.
c. Masks.
d. Diaphragms.
e. Filters or screens.
Film Contrast
1. The ability of film to detect and
record different radiation
exposures as differences in film
density is called film contrast.
Film Contrast
2. The relationship between the
amount of exposure and the
resulting film density is
expressed in the form of film
characteristic curves and is
determined by the following
factors:
Film Contrast
a. Film grain size.
b. Chemistry of the film processing
chemical.
c. Concentration of the processing
chemicals.
d. Development time.
e. Development temperature.
f. Agitation in the developer solution.
Film Speed
1. Film speed is an important
consideration in determining the
proper exposure time to obtain the
desired film density.
2. The next figure illustrates films with
high, medium and low speeds.
Film Speed
3. Knowing film speed is important
in film selection for each
particular radiographic testing
task.
Graininess
1. Graininess is the visible evidence of
the grouping into clumps of the silver
particles that form the image on the
radiographic film.
2. The following figure shows the effect
of grain variation on the image
definition.
Graininess
3. The degree of graininess of an
exposed film depends on the
following factors:
a. Grain size.
b. The quality of the radiation.
c. Film process conditions.
d. Type of film screens.
have
Film Processing
1. Film processing makes the latent
image visible.
2. The following general
precautions must be observed
during film processing:
Film Processing
a. Follow manufacturer recommendations
for chemical concentrations,
temperature and processing time.
b. Use equipment, tanks, trays and
holders that can withstand the
chemical action.
Film Processing
c. Ensure tanks are clean.
d. Recommended safelights should
be used and should be checked
regularly.
Film Processing
e. Maintain cleanliness in the
darkroom to avoid any artifacts
on developed radiographs.
f. Avoid any contamination of
different solutions.
Tank Processing
The arrangement of tank processing
(manual processing) unit is shown in
the next slide.
Tank Processing
1. The tanks for processing solutions and
wash water should be deep enough for
the film to be submerged.
2. The chemicals in the tanks must be
stirred and the temperature must be
checked with calibrated thermometer
before turning off the ambient light.
Tank Processing
3. All required equipment should be
arranged before turning off the
ambient light.
4. All unnecessary materials should
be kept away from the
processing area.
Tank Processing
5. Test the safe lights and arrangement
them for easy viewing. Follow the
standard recommendations for
regular checking.
6. The door to the darkroom should be
locked to prevent accidental
exposure to ambient light.
Tank Processing
7. To load the film inside the hangers, it
should grasped by its edges or corner
to avoid finger prints, bending,
wrinkling or crimping during handling.
8. Keep the loading area completely dry.
9. Follow the tank processing
procedures.
Developing
Developing is the chemical
process of reducing silver
bromide particles in the exposed
area of the film emulsion to
metallic silver.
Developing
1. Follow the manufacturers
recommendations for developing
temperature and time.
2. Film should be agitated during
developing to obtain a uniform
development and to avoid any air
bubbles from attaching to the film.
Developing
3. Use strips of exposed radiographs
to control the developer activity
as regular quality control
checking.
4. Follow the manufacturers
recommendations to replenish the
solution.
Stop Bath
The stop bath, a solution of acetic acid
and water, serves to remove the residual
developer solution from the film.
1. Uncontaminated running water for at
least 2 min can be used as an
alternative to stop bath.
Stop Bath
2. Manufacturers directions should
be used to make the stop bath
solution.
3. A fresh stop bath solution is
yellow in color and clear under
safelight.
Fixing
1. Fixer, an acidic solution, has two
functions on the film:
a. It dissolves and removes the
silver bromide from the undeveloped
portions of the film
without
affecting the developed portion.
b. It hardens the emulsion gelatin.
Fixing
2. The minimum time required for
fixing is twice the amount of time
necessary to clean the film.
3. Fixing time should not exceed 15
min.
4. Improper fixing shortens the
archival length of the film.
Fixing
5. Film should be agitated in fixing
solution at 2 min intervals.
6. The replacement of fixing
solution should be determined by
checking the acidity of the
solution.
Washing
After fixing, washing is necessary to
remove the fixer from the emulsion.
1. Each film is washed for a period
of time equal to twice the fixing.
2. Hypo clearing agent may be
used to speed up film washing.
Washing
3. Best results for washing are
obtained with a water temperature
between 65 and 70 F (18.3 and
21.1 C).
4. To avoid any water marks, film is
immersed in a wetting agent that
also aids in reducing the drying time.
Drying
The final stage of the film
processing is drying.
Radiographic Film
1. Radiographic film consists of:
a. Base: A thin, transparent
plastic sheet.
Radiographic Film
2. Latent (hidden) image: Trace of
exposure of radiation on the exposed
film, cannot be detected by ordinary
physical methods.
3. Visible image: Image on the film after
developed by chemical processing.
Lesson 5
Safety
Introduction
1. Radiographers are cautioned to
be aware of the latest effective
safety regulations.
2. Radiation safety practices are
based on the effects of radiation
on the human body, and
characteristics of radiation.
Introduction
3. Personnel protection is
dependant upon detection
devices, and through the proper
use of time, distance and
shielding.
Introduction
4. Agreement States are the
regulations covering use, handling
and transportation of radioactive
materials approved by the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC).
Introduction
5. All of the safety regulations are
designed to limit exposure to the
radiographer and to provide
protection to the general public.
Introduction
6. The radiographer, who is
employed by a licensee of NRC
or who is employed by a licensee
of an agreement state, must
have knowledge of, and comply
with, all applicable regulations.
Units of Radiation
Dose Measurement
1. The damaging effects of
radiation are dependent on both
the type and the level of energy
of the radiation.
2. For different types of radiation, a
relative biological effectiveness
is applied.
Units of Radiation
Dose Measurement
3. For radiation safety purposes,
the cumulative effect of radiation
on the human body is of primary
concerns.
Roentgen (R)
1. The roentgen (R) or sievert (Sv) is
the physical unit measure of the
ionization of air by X-radiation or
gamma radiation.
Roentgen (R)
2. It is defined as the quantity of
radiation that will produce one
electrostatic unit (esu) of charge
in one cubic centimeter of air at
standard pressure and
temperature (STP).
Roentgen (R)
3. 1 R of radiation = absorption by
ionization of about 83 erg (unit of
work or energy in physics) of
radiation energy per gram of air.
4. For practical purpose, mR is often
used, which is:
1 mR = 1/1000 R.
Quality Factor
1. Quality factor takes into account the
biological effect of different
radiations on human body.
Quality Factor
2. Quality factor values are
determined by National
Committee on Radiation
Protection. They are summarized
in the following table.
Working Distance
1. The greater the distance from a
radiation source, the lower the
radiation intensity.
2. The inverse square law is used
is used to calculate radiation
intensities at various distances
from a radiation source.
Working Distance
I1/I2 = D22/D21
where I1 and I2 are intensities at
distances D1 and aD2,
respectively.
Working Distance
3. The same principles hold for
X-radiation. The intensity at a
known distance with
predetermined current and
voltage setting (usually given by
the X-ray tubes manufacturers)
can be determined by applying
the inverse square law.
Working Distance
4. Radiation intensity at any point is
the sum of the primary radiation
and the secondary (scattered)
radiation at that point.
Shielding
1. Materials commonly used for
shielding to reduce personnel
exposures are lead, steel, water and
concrete.
Shielding
2. Shielding cannot stop all of the
energy of X-radiation or gamma
radiation; therefore, it is practical to
measure shielding efficiency in
terms of half value layers.
Shielding
3. Half value layer (HVL) is that
amount of shielding that will stop
half of the radiation of a given
intensity.
Shielding
4. Similarly, shielding efficiency is
often measured in tenth value
layers. A tenth value layer is that
amount of shielding that will stop
nine tenth of the radiation of a
given intensity. (See the
following tables.)
Exposure Area
1. Exposure areas should consist of a
room with concrete or block walls,
lined with lead or other suitable
shielding materials.
2. Exposure area can be an enclosed
shielding cabinet large enough for
the test objects and with reliable
safety features.
Exposure Area
3. Controls should be located outside the
exposure area.
4. In field radiography or temporary job sites,
safe distance in relation to exposure must
be determined and be secured by:
a. Guard rails or ropes.
b. Legible radiation warning signs.
c. Sufficient shielding.
Exposure Area
5. Only monitored radiographers are
permitted in the radiation area.
6. Keeping a safe distance from the
radiation source is the simplest and
most effective safety consideration
in field radiography.
Occupational Radiation
Exposure Limits
1. Limitations on individual dosage
greater than those listed in the
following table may be permitted with
the following conditions:
a. The dose for the whole body
does not exceed 5 rem (0.05 Sv)
during any calendar year.
Occupational Radiation
Exposure Limits
b. The individuals accumulated
occupational dose has been
recoded on NRC Form-4 and the
individual has signed the form.
Levels of Radiation in
Unrestricted Areas
The following image shows the
exposure limits in an unrestricted
area.
Personnel Monitoring
There are different personnel
monitoring devices required for use
by radiographers and their assistants
during radiographic operations:
Personnel Monitoring
1. Film badges.
2. Thermoluminescent dosimeters
(TLDs).
3. Optically stimulated
luminescence badges (OSL).
Personnel Monitoring
4. Direct reading dosimeters.
5. Pocket dosimeters.
6. Electronic personal dosimeters.
The last two types should be
capable of measuring exposures
from 0 to 200 mR (0 to 2 mSv).
Radiation Survey
Instrumentation Requirements
1. Radiographers should have operable
and calibrated radiation survey meters.
2. Each exposure device shall be
accompanied by a survey meter.
3. The meters shall have a range of
2 mR (0.02 mSv) per hour through
1 R (0.1 Sv) per hour.
Radiation Surveys
1. An operable and calibrated radiation
survey instrumentation should be
available at an exposure area.
Radiation Surveys
2. When working with radioisotopes, a
radioactive survey shall be made
around the camera to ensure the
source has been returned to its
shielded condition. This is known
as 360 sweep.
Radiation Surveys
3. Before storing each sealed source,
a radiation survey shall be made to
be sure that the source is in its
shielded position.
4. All these readings shall be recorded
on a radiation report survey.
Detection and
Measurement Instruments
There are different instruments that
measure the radiation based on the
ionization produced in a gas. These
instruments fall into two categories:
1. Instruments that measure total dose
exposure.
2. Instruments that measure dose rate
(radiation intensity).
Pocket Dosimeters
1. The pocket dosimeter is a small
device, about the size of a
fountain pen, as shown in the
following picture.
Pocket Dosimeters
1. Its operation is based on two
main principles:
a.Radiation causes ionization
in a gas.
b.Similar electrical changes
repel each other.
Pocket Dosimeters
2. The dosimeter should be
properly charged (the indicator
on zero scale) before using.
Pocket Dosimeters
3. Pocket dosimeters are designed
with a sensitivity that permits them
to be scaled in doses from 0 to 200
mR (0 to 2 mSv).
4. Pocket dosimeters must be
calibrated annually, per NRC
regulation, and the date should be
labeled on them.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) Badge
1. OSL badges measure beta (b),
gamma, neutron and
X-radiation exposures.
2. The OSL is a thin strip of
specially formulated aluminum
oxide crystalline material.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) Badge
3. It detects energies from 5 keV to
40 MeV for photons, 150 keV to
10 MeV for beta particles, and 40
keV to 35 MeV for neutrons.
4. The dose measurements range
from 1 mrem to 1000 rem.
Geiger-Mueller Counters
1. A geiger-mueller counter is a high
sensitive radiation detection
device.
2. Geiger-mueller counters are
typically accurate to 20% for the
quantity of radiation to which they
are calibrated.
3. They should be calibrated annually.
Electrical Safety
1. Because X-ray machines use high
voltage circuits, the radiographer
must comply with safe electrical
procedures.
2. This is more serious specifically for
portable X-ray equipment, which
requires certain electrical
precautions.
Electrical Safety
3. During operation or service of
X-ray equipment, the following
precautions, applicable to both
permanent and portable
installations, should be observed
carefully.
Electrical Safety
a. Do not turn power on until set up
for exposure is completed.
b. Ensure that grounding
instructions are complied with.
Electrical Safety
c. Regularly check power cables for signs
of wear, and replace them where
necessary.
d. Avoid handling power cables when the
power is on. The machines operational
key should be removed when not in use.
Electrical Safety
e. If power cables must be handled with
the power on, use safety equipment
such as rubber gloves, rubber mats
and insulated high voltage sticks.
f. Be sure that water and moisture is not
in close contact with power cables.
Electrical Safety
g. Ensure that capacitors are
completely discharged before
checking an electronic circuit.