EE1352

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

R.KALAIVANI
EEE DEPARTMENT
RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
RAJALAKSHMI NAGAR,THANDALAM 602 105

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UNIT I

THE POWER SYSTEM- AN OVERVIEW

AND MODELLING

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Power system network

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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

It is a diagrammatic representation of a power system in
which the components are represented by their symbols.

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COMPONENTS OF A
POWER SYSTEM
1.Alternator
2.Power transformer
3.Transmission lines
4.Substation transformer
5.Distribution transformer
6.Loads
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MODELLING OF GENERATOR AND

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

1 equivalent circuit of generator

1 equivalent circuit of synchronous motor

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MODELLING OF TRANSFORMER

E2 N 2
I

1
E1
N1 I 2
R2
K2
X
X 1 X 2 ' X 1 22
K

R01 R1 R2 ' R1
X 01

=Equivalent resistance referred to 1o

=Equivalent reactance referred to 1o

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MODELLING OF TRANSMISSION LINE

type

T type

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MODELLING OF INDUCTION MOTOR

1
Rr ( 1) =Resistance representing load
s
R RS Rr ' =Equivalent resistance referred to stator
'

X X S X r'

=Equivalent reactance referred to stator

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per unit=actual value/base value

Let KVAb=Base KVA
kVb=Base voltage
Zb=Base impedance in

Zb

kVb

MVAb

kVb

KVAb
1000

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Changing the base of per unit quantities

Let z = actual impedance()
Z b = base impedance ()

Z p.u

Let

Z * MVAb
Z
Z

2
2
Z b kVb
kVb
MVAb
kVb ,old & MVBb ,old
kVb ,new & MVBb , new

represent old base values

represent new base values

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Z p.u ,old

Z * MVAb ,old

kV

b , old

(1)

Z p.u ,old * MVAb ,old

kV

b , old

Z p.u , new

(2)

Z * MVAb ,new

kV

b , new

Z p.u , new Z p.u ,old

kV

*
kV

(3)

b , old

b , new

2
2

MVAb ,new
MVAb ,old

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ADVANTAGES OF PER UNIT CALCULATIONS

The p.u impedance referred to either side of a 1
transformer is same
The manufacturers provide the impedance value in p.u
The p.u impedance referred to either side of a 3
transformer is same regardless of the 3 connections YY,-Y
p.u value always less than unity.

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IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM
This diagram obtained by replacing each component by
their 1 equivalent circuit.
Following approximations are made to draw impedance
diagram
1. The impedance b/w neutral and ground omitted.
2. Shunt branches of the transformer equivalent circuit
neglected.

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REACTANCE DIAGRAM
It is the equivalent circuit of the power system in which
the various components are represented by their
respective equivalent circuit.
Reactance diagram can be obtained after omitting all
resistances & capacitances of the transmission line from
impedance diagram

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REACTANCE DIAGRAM FOR THE GIVEN POWER SYSTEM

NETWORK

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PROCEDURE TO FORM REACTANCE

DIAGRAM FROM SINGLE DIAGRAM
1.Select a base power kVAb or MVAb
2.Select a base voltage kVb
3. The voltage conversion is achieved by means of transformer kV b on LT
section= kVb on HT section x LT voltage rating/HT voltage rating
4. When specified reactance of a component is in ohms
p.u reactance=actual reactance/base reactance
specified reactance of a component is in p.u

X p.u ,new X p.u ,old

kV

*
kV

b , old

b , new

MVAb ,new
MVAb ,old

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p.u. calculation of 3 winding transformer

Zp=Impedance of primary winding

Zs=Impedance of secondary winding
Zt=Impedance of tertiary winding
Short circuit test conducted to find out the above 3
impedances

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1
Z p Z ps Z pt Z st '
2
1
'
Z s Z ps Z st ' Z pt
2
1
'
Z t Z ps Z pt Z st '
2

Z ps

= Leakage impedance measured in 1o with 2o short circuited

and tertiary open.

Z pt = Leakage impedance measured in 1o with tertiary short

circuited and 2o open.

Z st '

= Leakage impedance measured in 2o with tertiary short

circuited and 1o open and referred to primary

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UNIT II

POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

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PRIMITIVE NETWORK
It is a set of unconnected elements which provides information
regarding the characteristics of individual elements. it can be
represented both in impedance & admittance form

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BUS ADMITTANCE(Y BUS) MATRIX

Y BUS can be formed by 2 methods
1.Inspection method
2.Singular transformation

Y BUS =

Y11 Y12 Y1n

Y
Y

Y
21
22
2 n

Y Y Y
nn
n1 n 2
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INSPECTION METHOD
For n bus system
Diagonal element of Y BUS
n

Yii yij
j 1

Off Diagonal element of Y BUS

Yij yij

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SINGULAR TRANSFORMATION METHOD

Y BUS =

A y A
T

Where [y]=primitive admittance

A=bus incidence matrix

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BUS CLASSIFICATION
1.Slack bus or Reference bus or Swing bus:
|V| and are specified. P and Q are un specified, and to be
calculated.
2.Generator bus or PV bus or Voltage controlled bus:
P and |V| are specified. Q and are un specified, and to be
calculated
3.Load bus or PQ bus:
P and Q are specified. |V| and are un specified, and to be
calculated

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ITERATIVE METHOD
n

I p YpqVq
q 1

S p Pp jQ p VP I p
*

Pp jQ p
VP

YpqVq
q 1

The above Load flow equations are non linear and

can be solved by following iterative methods.
1.Gauss seidal method
2.Newton Raphson method
3.Fast Decoupled method

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GAUSS SEIDAL METHOD

For load bus calculate |V| and from Vpk+1 equation
p 1
n
P

jQ

1
p
p
k 1
k 1
k
Vp
YpqVq YpqVq
k *
Ypp (VP )
q 1
q p 1

For generator bus calculate Q from QPK+1 equation

Qp

k 1

1*Im (VP )

p 1

Y
q 1

pq q

k 1

YpqVq
q p

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 Check Qp,calk+1 with the limits of Qp

If Qp,calk+1 lies within the limits bus p remains as PV bus
otherwise it will change to load bus
Calculate for PV bus from Vpk+1 equation
Acceleration factor can be used for faster convergence
Calculate change in bus-p voltage

V p

k 1

k 1

Vp Vp

If |Vmax |< , find slack bus power otherwise increase the

iteration count (k)
Slack bus power=
S S

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NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

n

Pi Qi Vi V j Yij ij i j
j 1

Pi Vi V j Yij cos(ij i j )
j 1
n

Qi Vi V j Yij sin(ij i j )
j 1

J 2

J 4 V
Pi k

J1
P
Q J

3
Pi k Pi sch

Qi k Qi sch Qi k

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 Calculate |V| and from the following equation

i k 1 i k k
Vi k 1 Vi k Vi k
If

Pi k
Qi k

stop the iteration otherwise increase the iteration count (k)

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FAST DECOUPLED METHOD

J2 & J3 of Jacobian matrix are zero
J1
P

J 4

P
P J1

Q
Q J 4 V
V

P
B '
Vi
Q
B '' V
Vi
B '
V B ''

P
V

Q
V

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 i k 1 i k k
Vi k 1 Vi k Vi k
This method requires more iterations than NR
method but less time per iteration
It is useful for in contingency analysis

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COMPARISION BETWEEN ITERATIVE

METHODS
Gauss Seidal Method
1. Computer memory requirement is less.
2. Computation time per iteration is less.
3. It requires less number of arithmetic operations to
complete an iteration and ease in programming.
4. No. of iterations are more for convergence and rate of
convergence is slow (linear convergence
characteristic.
5. No. of iterations increases with the increase of no. of
buses.

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NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

Superior convergence because of quadratic convergence.
It has an 1:8 iteration ratio compared to GS method.
More accurate.
Smaller no. of iterations and used for large size systems.
It is faster and no. of iterations is independent of the no. of buses.
Technique is difficult and calculations involved in each iteration are
more and thus computation time per iteration is large.
Computer memory requirement is large, as the elements of jacobian
matrix are to be computed in each iteration.
Programming logic is more complex.

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FAST DECOUPLED METHOD

It is simple and computationally efficient.
Storage of jacobian matrix elements are60% of NR
method
computation time per iteration is less.
Convergence is geometric,2 to 5 iterations required for
accurate solutions
Speed for iterations is 5 times that of NR method and 2-3
times of GS method

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UNIT III

FAULT ANALYSIS-BALANCED FAULT

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Need for fault analysis

To determine the magnitude of fault current throughout
the power system after fault occurs.
To select the ratings for fuses, breakers and switchgear.
To check the MVA ratings of the existing circuit breakers
when new generators are added into a system.

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BALANCED THREE PHASE FAULT

All the three phases are short circuited to each other and to earth.
Voltages and currents of the system balanced after the symmetrical fault
occurred. It is enough to consider any one phase for analysis.

SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY

It is the product of magnitudes of the prefault voltage

and the post fault current.
It is used to determine the dimension of a bus bar and the
interrupting capacity of a circuit breaker.

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Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)

SCC V 0 I F
IF

VT
ZT
2

SCC 1

Sb ,1
VT

MVA /
ZT
ZT p.u

SCC 3
If

Sb ,3
ZT

MVA

p .u

SCC 3 *106
3 *VL ,b *106

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Procedure for calculating short circuit capacity

and fault current
Draw a single line diagram and select common base Sb
MVA and kV
Draw the reactance diagram and calculate the total p.u
impedance from the fault point to source (Thevenin
impedance ZT)
Determine SCC and If

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ALGORITHM FOR SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

Consider a n bus network. Assume that three phase fault

is applied at bus k through a fault impedance zf

Prefault voltages at all the buses are

V1 (0)
V (0)
2
.

Vbus (0)

V
(0)
k
.

Vn (0)

Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit i.e Zeroing all voltage sources
and add voltage source Vk (0) at faulted bus k and draw the
reactance diagram

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The change in bus voltage due to fault is

Vbus

V1
.

V
k

Vn

The bus voltages during the fault is

Vbus ( F ) Vbus (0) Vbus

The current entering into all the buses is zero.the current entering
into faulted bus k is ve of the current leaving the bus k

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Vbus Zbus Ibus

Z11 . Z1k . Z1n 0

.
.
.
.
.
.

Vbus Z k 1 . Z kk . Z kn I k ( F )

. . . . . .

Z . Z . Z 0
nk
nn
n1

Vk ( F ) Vk (0) Z kk I k ( F )
Vk ( F ) Z f I k ( F )
Vk (0)
Ik (F )
Z kk Z f
Vi ( F ) Vi (0) Z ik I k ( F )

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ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF THE

BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

Modification of Zbus matrix involves any one of the following 4 cases

Case 1:adding a branch impedance zb from a new bus p to

the reference bus
Addition of new bus will increase the order the Zbus matrix by 1

zoriginal 0
Zbus ,new

zb
0
(n+1)th column and row elements are zero except the diagonal
diagonal element is zb

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Case 2: adding a branch impedance zb from a new bus p

to the existing bus q
Addition of new bus will increase the order the Zbus matrix by 1
The elements of (n+1)th column and row are the elements of
qth column and row and the diagonal element is Zqq+Zb
Case 3:adding a branch impedance zb from an existing bus p to
the reference bus
The elements of (n+1)th column and row are the elements of
qth column and row and the diagonal element is Zqq+Zb and
(n+1)th row and column should be eliminated using the following
formula

Z jk ,act Z jk

Z j ( n1) Z ( n1) k
Z ( n1)( n1)

j 1,2...n; k 1,2..n

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Case 4:adding a branch impedance zb between existing buses h and q

elements of (n+1)th column are elements of bus h column
bus q column and elements of (n+1)th row are elements of
bus h row bus q row
the diagonal element= Z b Z hh Z qq 2 Z hq
and (n+1)th row and column should be eliminated using the following
formula

Z jk ,act Z jk

Z j ( n1) Z ( n1) k
Z ( n1)( n 1)

j 1,2...n; k 1,2..n

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UNIT IV

FAULT ANALYSIS- SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS AND

UNBALANCED FAULT

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INTRODUCTION
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
o One or two phases are involved
o Voltages and currents become unbalanced and each phase is to be
treated individually
o The various types of faults are
Shunt type faults
1.Line to Ground fault (LG)
2. Line to Line fault (LL)
3. Line to Line to Ground fault (LLG)
Series type faults
Open conductor fault (one or two conductor open fault)

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FUNDAMENTALS OF SYMMETRICAL
COMPONENTS
Symmetrical components can be used to transform
three phase unbalanced voltages and currents to
balanced voltages and currents
Three phase unbalanced phasors can be resolved into
following three sequences
1.Positive sequence components
2. Negative sequence components
3. Zero sequence components

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Positive sequence components

Three phasors with equal magnitudes, equally displaced from one
another by 120o and phase sequence is same as that of original
phasors. Va1 , Vb1 , Vc1

Negative sequence components

Three phasors with equal magnitudes, equally displaced from one
another by 120o and phase sequence is opposite to that of original
phasors. Va 2 , Vb 2 , Vc 2

Zero sequence components

Three phasors with equal magnitudes and displaced from one another
by 0o Va 0 , Vb 0 , Vc 0

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN UNBALANCED VECTORS

AND SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Va Va 0 Va1 Va 2
Vb Vb 0 Vb1 Vb 2
Vc Vc 0 Vc1 Vc 2
Va
1 1 1
V 1 a 2 a

b
2

Vc
1 a a
1 1 1

A 1 a 2 a
1 a a 2

V a 0
V a1
V a 2

Similarly we can obtain for currents also

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SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE
Impedances offered by power system components to positive,
negative and zero sequence currents.

Positive sequence impedance

The impedance of a component when positive sequence
currents alone are flowing.

Negative sequence impedance

The impedance of a component when negative sequence
currents alone are flowing.

Zero sequence impedance

The impedance of a component when zero sequence currents
alone are flowing.

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SEQUENCE NETWORK
SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR GENERATOR

positive sequence network

negative sequence network

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Zero sequence network

53

SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR

TRANSMISSION LINE

positive sequence network

negative sequence network

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Zero sequence network

54

SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR

TRANSFORMER

positive sequence network

negative sequence network

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Zero sequence network

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SEQUENCE NETWORK FOR LOAD

positive sequence network

negative sequence network

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Zero sequence network

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SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT

Ib 0
Ic 0
Va Zf Ia
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0 Ia / 3
Consider a fault between phase a and

Ea
Ia1
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

ground through an impedance zf

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LINE TO LINE (LL) FAULT

Ia 0
I c Ib
Vb Vc Ib Z f
Ia2 Ia1
Ia0 0
Consider a fault between phase b and c

Va1 Va2 Zf I a1

through an impedance zf

Ia1

Ea
Z1 Z 2 3Z f

Ib I c

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jEa
Z1 Z 2 3Z f

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DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND (LLG) FAULT

Ia0 0
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0 0
Vb =Vc Z f (Ib Ic ) 3Zf Ia0
Va0 Va1 Vb 3Zf Ia0
Ea
Ia1
Z1 Z 2 ( Z 0 3Z f ) / ( Z 2 Z 0 3Z f )
Consider a fault between phase b and c
through an impedance zf to ground

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UNBALANCED FAULT ANALYSIS USING

BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT USING Zbus
Consider a fault between phase a and ground through
an impedance zf at bus k
For a fault at bus k the symmetrical
components of fault current
Ik 0 Ik1 Ik 2

Vk (0)
Z kk1 Z kk 2 Z kk 0 3Z f

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LINE TO LINE (LL) FAULT

Consider a fault between phase b and c through an impedance zf

Ik 0 0
Ik1 Ik 2

Vk (0)
Z kk 1 Z kk 2 Z f

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DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND (LLG) FAULT

Consider a fault between phase b and c through an impedance zf to ground

Ik1

Ik 2
Ik

Vk (0)
2
0
f
Z
(
Z

3
Z
)
Z kk 1 kk2 kk 0
Z kk Z kk 3Z f

Vk (0) Z kk 1I k 1

Z kk 2
Vk (0) Z kk 1I k 1

Z kk 0 3Z f

Ik ( F ) Ik b Ik c

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BUS VOLTAGES AND LINE CURRENTS

DURING FAULT
Vi 0 ( F ) 0 Z ik 0 I k 0
Vi1 ( F ) Vi 0 (0) Z ik 1I k 1
Vi 2 ( F ) 0 Z ik 2 I k 2
Iij 0
Iij1
Iij 2

Vi 0 ( F ) V j 0 ( F )
Z ij 0
Vi1 ( F ) V j1 ( F )
Z ij1
Vi 2 ( F ) V j 2 ( F )
Z ij 2

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UNIT V
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

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STABILITY
The tendency of a power system to develop restoring
forces equal to or greater than the disturbing forces to
maintain the state of equilibrium.
Ability to keep the machines in synchronism with another
machine

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CLASSIFICATION OF STABILITY
Steady state stability
Ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small and
slow disturbances (like gradual power changes)
Dynamic stability
Ability of the power system to regain synchronism after small
disturbances occurring for a long time (like changes in turbine speed,
change in load)
Transient stability
This concern with sudden and large changes in the network
conditions i.e. . sudden changes in application or removal of loads,
line switching operating operations, line faults, or loss of excitation.

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 Steady state limit is the maximum power that can be

transferred without the system become unstable when
the load in increased gradually under steady state
conditions.
Transient limit is the maximum power that can be
transferred without the system becoming unstable when
a sudden or large disturbance occurs.

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Swing Equation for Single Machine Infinite

Bus System

The equation governing the motion of the rotor of a

synchronous machine

d 2 m
J 2 Ta Tm Te
dt
where
J=The total moment of inertia of the rotor(kg-m2)
m =Singular displacement of the rotor
Tm=Mechanical torque (N-m)
Te=Net electrical torque (N-m)
Ta=Net accelerating torque (N-m)

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 m smt m
d m
d m
sm
dt
dt
d 2 m d 2 m
2
2
dt
dt
d 2 m
J m 2 pa pm pe
dt

Where pm is the shaft power input to the machine

pe is the electrical power
pa is the accelerating power

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J m M
d 2 m
M
pa pm pe
dt 2
2H
M
S machine
sm
pa
pm pe
2 H d 2 m

sm dt 2
S machine
S machine

H=machine inertia constant

2 H d 2
pa pm pe
s dt 2

s 2 f
H d 2
pa pm pe
f 0 dt 2

f
d 2 f 0

pm p2 max sin 0 pa
2
dt
H
H
d

dt
d f 0
d 2

pa
p.u
dt
H
dt 2

p.u

and s are in electrical

radian

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Swing Equation for Multimachine System

S machine =machine rating(base)

S system

=system base

H system d 2
pa pm pe p.u
2
f dt
Smachine
H system H machine
S system

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Rotor Angle Stability

It is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines
of a power system to maintain in synchronism. The
stability problem involves the study of the electro
mechanical oscillations inherent in power system.
Types of Rotor Angle Stability
1. Small Signal Stability (or) Steady State Stability
2. Transient stability

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Voltage Stability
It is the ability of a power system to maintain steady
acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under
normal operating conditions and after being subjected to
a disturbance.
The major factor for instability is the inability of the
power system to meet the demand for reactive power.

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Mid Term Stability

It represents transition between short term and long
term responses.
Typical ranges of time periods.
1. Short term : 0 to 10s
2. Mid Term : 10 to few minutes
3. Long Term : a few minutes to 10s of minutes
Long Term Stability
Usually these problem be associated with
1. Inadequacies in equipment responses.
2. Poor co-ordination of control and protection equipment.
3. Insufficient active/reactive power reserves.

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Equal Area Criterion

This is a simple graphical method to predict the transient
stability of two machine system or a single machine
against infinite bus. This criterion does not require swing
equation or solution of swing equation to determine the
stability condition.
The stability conditions are determined by equating the
areas of segments on power angle diagram.

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Factors Affecting Transient Stability

Strength of the transmission network within the system
and of the tie lines to adjacent systems.
The characteristics of generating units including inertia of
rotating parts and electrical properties such as transient
reactance and magnetic saturation characteristics of the
stator and rotor.
Speed with which the faulted lines or equipments can be
disconnected.

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Numerical Integration methods

Eulers method
Modified Eulers method
Runge-Kutta method

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EULERS METHOD

It is equivalent of using the first two terms of the Taylor series of

expansion for x around point (x0,t0)
X1 X 0

dX
t
dt

Successive step can be

X 2 X1
dX
dt

at x=x0

dX
att x=x
2
dt

at x=x0 is the slope of the curve at (x0,t0)

It is a first order method &slope is constant.

It depends the propagation error

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MODIFIED EULERS METHOD

Using first derivative of the initial point next point is obtained

dX
the step t1 t0 t
X 1 p X 0 t
dt

Using this x1p dx/dt at x1p=f(t1, x1p)

Corrected value is
X

P
1

X0

dx
dt

X0

dx

dt

X 1p

c
i 1

Xi

dx
dt

Xi

dx

dt

X ip1

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Numerical Solution of the swing equation

Input power pm=constant

At steady state pe=pm,

pm

p1max

0 sin 1
p1max

E' V
X1

At synchronous speed
0 0
p2 max

E' V
X2

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The swing equation

H d 2
pa pm pe
2
f 0 dt

f0
d 2 f 0

pa
pm p2max sin
2
dt
H
H
d

dt
d f 0
d 2

pa 2
dt
H
dt
Applying Modified Eulers method to above equation
t1 t0 t

d
i p1 i
t

dt

i
d
t
dt i

ip1 i

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The derivatives at the end of interval

d
p

p i 1
dt i1

f0
d
pa

p
dt i1 H

ip1

The corrected value

d

p
dt
dt

i1
c
i
i 1 i
t

dt
dt i
ip1
c

i 1 i
t

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Runge-Kutta Method

Obtain a load flow solution for pretransient conditions

Calculate the generator internal voltages behind transient reactance.
Assume the occurrence of a fault and calculate the reduced admittance matrix
Initialize time count K=0,J=0
Determine the eight constants

K1k f1 ( k , k )t
l1k f 2 ( k , k ) t

K1k
l1k
k
K f1 (
, ) t
2
2
Kk
lk
l2k f 2 ( k 1 , k 1 )t
2
2
k
K2
l2k
k
k
k
K 3 f1 (
, ) t
2
2
k
k
K
l
l3k f 2 ( k 2 , k 2 )t
2
2
k
K3
l3k
k
k
k
K 4 f1 (
, ) t
2
2
Kk
lk
l4k f 2 ( k 3 , k 3 )t
2
2
K1k 2 K 2k 2 K 3k K 4k

k

6
k
k
l1 2l2 2l3k l4k

k

6
k
2

EE1352 R.KAL

83

Compute the change in state vector

k
1

2 K 2k 2 K 3k K 4k

6
l1k 2l2k 2l3k l4k

new
state vector
Evaluatethe
k

k 1 k k

k 1
k
k
Evaluate the internal
voltage
behind
transient reactance using the relation

Check ifpt<tc yes K=K+1

p
p
p
p
Check if j=0,yes modify the network data and obtain the new reduced
admittance matrix and set j=j+1
set K=K+1
Check if K<Kmax, yes start from finding 8 constants

E k 1 E k cos k 1 j E k sin k 1

EE1352 R.KAL

84