Professional Documents
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Metodologi Penelitian
Metodologi Penelitian
Desain Penelitian
Experimental
Field Trial
Observasional
Deskriptif
Analitik
Community Trial
Cohort
Clinical Trial
Case Series
Case Control
Correlational Study
Cross Sectional
Survey
Experimental
Observational
Deskriptif
Analitik
Menjelaskan
frekuensi & distribusi
masalah kesehatan
terutama berdasarkan
faktor orang, tempat
dan waktu
Studi mengenai
determinants dari
masalah kesehatan
Menggunakan
kelompok
pembanding untuk
melihat hubungan
kausalitas (sebabakibat)
SIKLUS PENELITIAN
PENELITIAN DESKRIPTIF
A descriptive study is limited to a description of the
occurrence & distribution of a disease in a population
Often the 1st step in epidemiological investigation
Limited descriptive information in which the
characteristics of a no. of patients with a specific disease
are described but are NOT compared with those of a
reference population makes no attempt to analyze the
links between exposure & effect
Identifies non-random variations in the distribution of
disease to enable an investigator to generate testable
hypotheses regarding etiology
Studi Cross-sectional
Tujuan:
mempelajari angka kejadian suatu
penyakit/masalah kesehatan
mempelajari hubungan antara suatu faktor
risiko dengan angka kejadian suatu penyakit
Unit analisa: individual
Faktor risiko/exposure dan status
penyakit/masalah kesehatan diukur pada saat
yang sama
Case-Control
Exposure (+)
Exposure (-)
Exposure (+)
exposure
Cases (D+)
vs
Controls (D-)
Exposure (-)
timeline
1999
ditelusuri ke belakang
2009
PENELITIAN KOHORT
Begin with a group of people FREE of disease but classify
them into sub-groups:
Exposed
Not exposed
Follow up to see the development of new cases of disease
The occurrence of cases (diseases) were compared
between groups with or without exposure
Types of Cohort:
Prospective / Concurrent
Retrospective / Historical / Non-concurrent
CONCURENT (Prospective)
Investigator identifies the original population at the beginning
of study
Exposure & non-exposure are ascertained as they occur
during the study
Outcome is ascertained in the future
2.
Cohort Prospektif
Mulai dari EXPOSURE
Exposed (E)
vs
Non-exposed (NE)
outcome
Disease (+)
Disease (-)
Disease (+)
Disease (-)
timeline
2009
dilihat ke depan
2019
Cohort Retrospektif
Tetap mulai dari EXPOSURE dulu
Exposed (E)
vs
Non-exposed (NE)
outcome
Disease (+)
Disease (-)
Disease (+)
Disease (-)
timeline
1999
dilihat ke depan
2009
Cohort Prospektif
E(+) E(-)
Cohort Retrospektif
E(+) E(-)
Case - Control
D(+) D(-)
Cross Sectional
Exposure & Outcome
Dilihat pd saat bsamaan
D(+) D(-)
E (+) E (-)
timeline
1999
2009
2019
Jenis
Penelitian
Pilihan
Subjek
Info
Exposure
Info
Disease
CrossSectional
Current
Current
CaseControl
Disease
Past
Current
Cohort
Prospektif
Exposure
Current
Future
Cohort
Retrospektif
Exposure
Past
Current
B I A S
(Error in measurement)
Random error
Individual biological variation
Sampling error (chance variation)
Systematic error
Selection bias
Measurement/Observation/Information
bias
Effect of Bias
A true association may be partially
masked
A spurious association found
Under/Over-estimation of association
Controlling Bias
1. Selection Bias:
Minimize DO/LTFU/non-participant
Same diagnostic criteria
2. Observation bias:
Standardized procedures
Objective measurement of exposures/outcomes
Blinding / masking: single, double, triple
Blinding / Masking
A study technique by which subject(s) /
researcher / statistical analyst does not
know :
the group to which the subject(s) have
been allocated
Status of exposure / outcome
Hypothesis of the study
CONFOUNDING
Faktor lain yang juga berpengaruh pada faktor
penyebab maupun akibat yang sedang diteliti,
sehingga dapat mengacaukan hasil penelitian
Down
Syndr
Control
Total
Usia
ibu >35
91
95
Usia
ibu <35
12
Total
16
1163
1254
OR crude = 4,26
OR >35 thn = 5,73
OR <35 thn = 3,39
1175
1270
Down
Control
Total
Yes
No
86
89
Total
91
95
<35
Down
Control
Total
Yes
104
107
No
1059
1068
Total
12
1163
1175
Penelitian Analitik
Disease risk
in non-exposed
CASE - CONTROL
To determine if the 2 groups differ in proportion of
being exposed to a specific factor
DISEASE
Exposed
compared to
Not Exposed
NO DISEASE
Exposed
Not Exposed
COHORT
To determine differences in rate at which disease develops
in relation to exposure factor
EXPOSED
Disease
compared to
No Disease
NOT EXPOSED
Disease
No Disease
RELATIVE RISK
Probability of Exposed in Disease (Ie)
RR = ------------------------------------------------------Probability of Not Exposed in Disease (I0)
a / (a+b)
RR = ------------c / (c+d)
Ie = E(+) pada D(+)
Io = E(-) pada D(+)
PEMAHAMAN RR
Bila RR = 1 maka risiko antara yg terpapar dan tidak
terpapar untuk medapat penyakit tidak berbeda (sama)
Bila RR > 1 maka yg terpapar mempunyai risiko yg lebih
besar untuk mendapat penyakit daripada yg tidak terpapar
Asosiasi positif bersifat harmful
Asosiasi kuat apabila RR>2
Asosiasi sedang apabila RR >1,5 2
Asosiasi lemah apabila RR >1 - <1,5
Bila RR < 1 maka keterpaparan memberikan efek
perlindungan terhadap penyakit (menguntungkan)
Asosiasi negatif bersifat protektif
Calculating RR in COHORT
Then follow to see whether
Disease
develops(+)
Disease
doesnt
develop (-)
TOTAL
Exposed (+)
a+b
NonExposed (-)
c+d
TOTAL
a+c
b+d
Example RR in COHORT
CHD(+)
CHD (-)
TOTAL
Smoking
84
2916
3000
Dont smoke
87
4913
5000
TOTAL
171
7829
8000
Incidence not
due to exposure
Levels of risk
Incidence due
to exposure
Background
risk
ATTRIBUTABLE RISK
AR =
I e I0
b (r - 1)
AR = ---------------b (r 1) + 1
b = proporsi populasi terpapar
r = resiko relatif
CHD (+)
CHD (-)
Total
Smoking
84
2916
3000
Dont smoke
87
4913
5000
Comparison of RR and RR
Annual Mortality Rate per 100.000
Cigarette smokers
Non-smokers
Lung Cancer
140
10
CHD
669
413
ODDS RATIO
(= Estimated Relative Risk)
Mrpk rasio dari 2 Odds
Dipakai bila frekuensi penyakit jarang (< 10%)
Kasus yang dikumpulkan mewakili semua kasus
yang ada
Kontrol mewakili seluruh populasi umum
OR in Unmatched Case-Control
OR is defined as the ratio of:
Odds that the cases were exposed
Odds that the controls were exposed
Therefore OR = a/c = ad
b/d bc
a
a+b
=
c
c+d
a
b
c
d
ad
bc
Example where OR RR
Disease
No Disease
Total
Exposed
200
9800
10000
Not Exposed
100
9900
10000
RR = (200/10000) : (100/10000) = 2
OR = (200 x 9900) (9800 x 100) = 2,02
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
When the investigator controls the assignment of
subjects to the independent variables, after the
participants are identified & non-participants
eliminated
In human populations only to reduce risk of
disease/death
Prophylactic trial
Therapeutic trial
PROSEDUR PENELITIAN
EKSPERIMENTAL
RANDOMIZATION
(random allocation)
Suatu prosedur untuk menempatkan subyek
penelitian ke dalam kelompok perlakuan atau
kelompok pembanding secara acak (random)
To ensure the groups being compared are
equivalent comparable at the start of an
investigation ie. any difference is due to
chance & unaffected by biases
BUKU RUJUKAN
1. Gordis L. Epidemiology, third edition.
Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2004:
115-176, 177-190.
2. Beaglehole R, Bonita R, Kjellstrom T.
Basic epidemiology, reprinted. Geneva:
WHO, 1994: 31-52.
3. Rothman KJ. Epidemiology an
introduction. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002: 8-23, 94-129
oleh:
dr. Evy Luciana, MEpid
Biostatistik
Populasi
Sample
Latihan
Variable
Agama
Denyut nadi
Berat Badan
Status Gizi
Jenis Kelamin
Suhu tubuh
Tingkat pendidikan
Skala
Sifat
Latihan
Kadar Hb < 8 gr/dL
Kadar Hb 8 10 gr/dL
Kadar Hb > 10 gr/dL
Termasuk skala apakah ?
Tahapan Statistik
1.
Pengumpulan data :
Data apa, cara ukur, alat ukur, siapa
2. Pengolahan data:
Editing: memeriksa data
Coding: diberi kode sesuai klasifikasi
Processing: entry data ke komputer
Cleaning: check hasil entry data
3. Analisis data memberi makna data (peran statistik)
4. Penyajian data : tekstular, tabular, grafikal (tidak boleh
duplikasi)
Tabel
Harus ada:
Nomor tabel
Judul: what, who, where, when
Isi:
kolom & baris
Varibel
Jumlah
Persentase (%)
Narasi yg menyimpulkan
Macam-macam Grafik
1.
Katagorik :
i. Bar diagram : menunjukkan jumlah
ii. Pie diagram : menunjukkan proporsi (%)
iii. Pareto : menunjukkan besar masalah
2.
Numerik :
i. Histogram : data kontinu
ii. Frekuensi poligon : > 2 kelompok data
iii. Ogive : data kumulatif (cakupan)
iv. Line diagram : tren, unsur waktu, diskrit
Bar Diagram
Pie Diagram
Line Diagram
Ukuran Tengah
No
BB (kg)
65
60
55
65
65
70
55
Ukuran Variasi
Numerik :
i. Range (rentang) : max - min
ii. Varians (S2)
iii. Standard deviasi (S)
iv. Koefisien variasi (S/x)
Pengambilan Sample
1.
Non-random:
i.
Convenient
ii.
Consecutive
iii. Judgmental/Purposive
iv. Accidental
v.
Quota
2.
Random:
i.
Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Undi / tabel / komputer (epitable)
ii.
Stratified sampling
iii. Cluster Sampling
iv. Multistage
v.
PPS (Probability Proportionate to Size)
P O P U LAS I
Stratified
Sampling
Strata 1
Strata 2
Strata 3
S
T
R
A
T
I
F
I
K
A
S
I
P O P U LAS I
Cluster
Sampling
Cluster 1
Cluster 2
Cluster 3
CLUSTER
Var. bebas:
= Var. independent
= Exposure untuk penelitian observasional
= Intervensi untuk penelitian eksperimental
Mrpk fk risiko atau sesuatu yg diduga sbg penyebab
2.
Var. tergantung:
= Var. dependent
= Outcome
Mrpk penyakit atau sesuatu yg diduga sbg akibat
Penelitian
Var. independent Var. dependent
(sebab/exposure) akibat/outcome
Contoh:
Kebiasaan merokok CA Paru
CA Paru
Tdk CA Paru
Merokok
Tdk Merokok
Var. Dep
Numerik
Var. Indep
Katagorik
Chi Square
t test /
Anova
Var. Indep
Numerik
t test /
Anova
Korelasi (Pearson)
/ Regresi
Latihan
Apakah ada hubungan antara tingkat kepuasan
pasien (Y/T) dengan jenis kelamin pasien ?
Apakah ada hubungan antara kebiasaan ibu
merokok (Y/T) dengan berat bayi yang
dilahirkannya ?
Apakah ada hubungan antara penghasilan per
bulan dengan tingkat pendidikan responden
(rendah, sedang, tinggi) ?
Apakah ada hubungan antara frekuensi
kunjungan ANC bumil dengan kadar Hb-nya ?
Contoh Perhitungan
Vaksinasi
Skt Hep B
Tdk Hep B
Total
Placebo
80 (a)
140 (b)
220 (a+b)
Hepatitis B
20 (c)
220 (d)
240 (c+d)
Total
100 (a+c)
360 (b+d)
460 (N)
H0
E)
2 =
E
2
N
(ad
bc)
2 =
(a+b)(c+d)(a+c)(b+d)
2 =
{ l O E l 0,5 }2
E
N { l ad bc l 0,5N }2
(a+b)(c+d)(a+c)(b+d)
Set
(O E)2/E
1 (a)
80
(80+20)(80+140)/460
= 47,83
2 (b)
140
6,01
3 (c)
20
19,84
4 (d)
220
5,51
460
2 = 53,00
Macam Statistik
1. Deskriptif menjelaskan variable yang diteliti
tanpa melakukan generalisasi ke populasi
2. Analitik / Induktif / Inferensial
menyimpulkan secara umum.
Syaratnya :
Sample harus representatif
Jumlah harus cukup
Tehnik pengambilan sample harus benar
Statistik Analitik
Uji Hipotesis :
i.
Menetapkan hipotesis :
i. Ho : TIDAK ada hub / pbedaan yg bmakna
ii. Ha dalam proposal penelitian yg ditulis adalah
Ha tapi yg diuji adalah Ho
ii. Memilih uji statistik : mencari p-value
iii. Menentukan batas kemaknaan (level of
significance) : = 0,05
iv. Keputusan : bandingkan p-value dgn
p-value < : Ho ditolak
p-value > : Ho gagal ditolak (diterima)
Asosiasi statistik
Uji hipotesis (p-value)
Bermakna/tidaknya suatu uji statistik tergantung
jumlah sampel
2.
Asosiasi epidemiologik
Hills Criteria of Causality
Kuat/tidaknya suatu asosiasi epidemiologik
tergantung besar/kecilnya bias (internal validity)
BUKU RUJUKAN
1. Budiarto E. Biostatistika, untuk kedokteran
dan kesehatan masyarakat. EGC, 2001.
2. Sastroasmoro S, Ismael S. Dasar-dasar
metodologi penelitian klinis. Edisi ke-3.
Jakarta: Binarupa Aksara, 2008.