Disinfection

The destruction or prevention of growth of microorganisms

capable of causing diseases
The final barrier against human exposure to pathogens
Disinfectants include:
heat denatures proteins and nucleic acids
chemicals uses a variety of mechanisms
filtration physical removal of a pathogen
radiation destroys nucleic acids
Some disinfectants also control taste and odor problems,
organic matter, and metals such as iron and manganese

Criteria For Good Disinfectant

1. It should be capable of destroying the
pathogenic organisms present in water.
2. It should not leave product of reaction which
render the water toxic.
3. Possess the property of leaving residual dose.
4. It should be cheap.
5. It should require small contact time.
6. Handling and storage should be easy.
7. Should be detectable by practical, rapid and
analytic techniques.

Mechanism of Disinfection
1. Damage to cell wall.
2. Alternation of cell permeability.
3. Changing the colloidal nature of cell prototype.
4. Inactivation of critical enzyme systems
responsible for metabolic activities.

Factors Influencing Disinfection

Type of disinfectant

Type of microorganism

Disinfectant concentration and time of contact

pH

Temperature

Chemical and physical interference, e.g., clumping of cells

or adsorption to larger particles

Kinetics of Disinfection
Inactivation is a gradual process involving a series of
physicochemical and biochemical steps. Inactivation is
described by the equation:
Nt/N0 = e-kt

Shoulder
Ideal, first order
Rapid, initial
inactivation

Log (N t/N )

Where:
N0 = number of microorganisms at time = 0
Nt = number of microorganisms at time = t
k = a decay constant (1/time)
t = time

Ideally, inactivation follows first-order

kinetics (blue line), but often non-ideal
behaviors occur resulting from
clumping of cells or multiple hits of
critical sites before inactivation

Ta iling o ff

-x
Time

Concentration and Contact Time

Effectiveness of chlorination depends primarily on the
concentration used and the time of exposure
Disinfectant effectiveness can be expressed as a C t value
where:
C = disinfectant concentration
t = time required to inactivate a 99% of the population under specific
conditions

The lower the C t, the more effective the disinfectant

In general, resistance to disinfection is in the following order:
vegetative bacteria < enteric viruses < spore-forming
bacteria < protozoan cysts

Common Disinfectants in Water Treatment

Chlorine
Chloramines
Chlorine dioxide
Ozone
Ultraviolet light
Iodine

Chlorination
1. Concentration of FREE RESIDUAL CHLORINE should be at
least 0.2 mg/l at consumers end and should not be more than
1.0 mg/l.
2. The amount of chlorine used in the reaction with these
contaminants is called the CHLORINE DEMAND.
3. The term FREE AVAILABLE CHLORINE is used to refer to the
sum of the concentrations of hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and
hypochlorite ion (OCl-), each expressed as available chlorine.
4. Chloramines are useful disinfectants in some situations and are
referred to as COMBINED RESIDUAL CHLORINE

Chlorination
Most commonly used disinfectant
In water chlorine undergoes the following reaction:
Cl2 + H2O
HOCl

HOCl + HCl
H+ + OCl-

HOCl and OCl- is defined as free available chlorine

HOCl 80 to 100 times effective than OCl- due to lack of
charge
Presence of HOCL and OCl- is determined by pH

Effect of pH on HOCL and OCl

Interfering Substances
Turbidity can prevent adequate contact between chlorine
and pathogens
Chlorine reacts with organic and inorganic nitrogenous
compounds, iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide.
Dissolved organic compounds exert a chlorine demand
Knowing the concentrations of interfering substances is
important in determining chlorine dose

Chlorine inactivation of microorganisms results from:

Altered permeability of the outer cellular membrane,

resulting in leakage of critical cell components

Interference with cell-associated membrane functions (e.g.,

phosphorylation of high-energy compounds)

Impairment of enzyme and protein function as a result of

irreversible binding of the sulfhydryl groups

Nucleic acid denaturation

Chloramines
Chloramines are produced by combining chlorine and ammonia
NH3

+ HOCl

NH2Cl + H2O monochloramine

NH2Cl + HOCl

NH2Cl2 + H2O dichloramine

NH2Cl2 + HOCl

NCl3 + H2O trichloramine

Used mainly as secondary disinfectants, e.g., following ozone

treatment, when a residual in the distribution system is needed

Break Point Chlorination

Generalized curve obtained during breakpoint chlorination

Break Point Chlorination

The oxidation of ammonia nitrogen by chlorine to gaseous
nitrogen at the breakpoint would theoretically require 1.5 mole of
chlorine per mole of nitrogen oxidized

Superchlorination
In the process of superchlorination which has generally
been employed when it is desired to treat a poor-quality
water chlorine is added beyond the breakpoint.
This process has become infrequent due to concerns
with by-product formation.
Chlorine dose as high as 10 to 15 mg/l is used.

Dechlorination
Generally, the residual chlorine obtained after
superchlorination is higher than may be desired
for distribution.
The chlorine residual may be decreased by the
application of a dechlorinating agent (sulfur
compounds or activated carbon).

Chlorine Dioxide: ClO2

Extreme soluble in water
Does not form trihalomethanes
Must be generated on-site:
2NaClO2 + Cl2

2ClO2 + 2NaCl

Ozone: O3
Very strong oxidant (very low Ct values) but has no
residual disinfection power
Generated by passing high voltage through the air
between two electrodes
More expensive than chlorination but does not produce
trihalomethanes which are suspected carcinogens
Widely used in Europe, limited use in U.S.

Oxidant

Advantages

Disadvantages

Chlorine

Strong oxidant
Persistant residual

Chlorinated by-products
Taste and odor problems
pH influences effectiveness

Chloramines

No trihalomethane
formation
Persistant residual

Weak oxidant
Some organic halide formation
Taste, odor, and growth problems

Chlorine dioxide

Strong oxidant
Relatively persistant
residual
No trihalomethane prod.
No pH effect

Total organic halide formation

ClO3 and ClO2 by products
On-site generation required
Hydrocarbon odors possib le

Ozone

Strong oxidant
No trihalomethane or
organic halide formed
No taste or odor prob.
Little pH effects
Coagulant aid
Some by products
biodegradable

Short half-life
On-site generation required
Energy intensive
Some by products biodegradable
Complex generation
Corrosive

UV Disinfection
Optimum ultraviolet light wavelength range for germicidal
effect: 250 nm - 270 nm
Low pressure mercury lamps emit 253.7 nm
Damages microbial/viral DNA and viral RNA by causing
dimerization, blocking nucleic acid replication
Does not produce toxic by-products
Higher costs than chemical disinfection, no residual
disinfection