Professional Documents
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Dastek
Dastek
Pangan
Sudarminto Setyo Yuwono
Apple Cooling
qfrig
INTRODUCTION
The study of process engineering is an attempt to combine all forms
of physical processing into a small number of basic operations, which
are called unit operations
Food processes may seem bewildering in their diversity, but careful
analysis will show that these complicated and differing processes can
be broken down into a small number of unit operations
Important unit operations in the food industry are fluid flow, heat
transfer, drying, evaporation, contact equilibrium processes (which
include distillation, extraction, gas absorption, crystallization, and
membrane processes), mechanical separations (which include
filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation and sieving), size reduction
and mixing.
Dimensions
These dimensions are length, mass, time and
temperature.
For convenience in engineering calculations, force
is added as another dimension
Dimensions are represented as symbols by: length
[L], mass [M], time [t], temperature [T] and force [F].
example:
Units
the metre (m) is defined in terms of the wavelength of light;
the standard kilogram (kg) is the mass of a standard lump of
platinum-iridium;
the second (s) is the time taken for light of a given wavelength to
vibrate a given number of times;
the degree Celsius (C) is a one-hundredth part of the temperature
interval between the freezing point and the boiling point of water at
standard pressure;
the unit of force, the newton (N), is that force which will give an
acceleration of 1 m sec-2 to a mass of 1kg;
the energy unit, the newton metre is called the joule (J),
the power unit, 1 J s-1, is called the watt (W).
Dimensionless Ratios
It is often easier to visualize quantities if they are expressed in ratio form and ratios have the
great advantage of being dimensionless
For example, specific gravity is a simple way to express the relative masses or weights of
equal volumes of various materials. The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight
of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of water
SG = weight of a volume of the substance/ weight of an equal volume of water .
Dimensionally, SG=[F]/ [L]-3 divided by[F]/ [L]-3 = 1
it gives an immediate sense of proportion
This sense of proportion is very important to food technologists as they are constantly
making approximate mental calculations for which they must be able to maintain correct
proportions
Another advantage of a dimensionless ratio is that it does not depend upon the units of
measurement used, provided the units are consistent for each dimension
Dimensionless ratios are employed frequently in the study of fluid flow and heat flow. These
dimensionless ratios are then called dimensionless numbers and are often called after a
prominent person who was associated with them, for example Reynolds number, Prandtl
number, and Nusselt number
Neraca Massa
Tahapan perhitungan:
Gambar diagram
Tulis reaksi kimia jika ada
Tulis dasar-dasar perhitungan
Hitung neraca massanya
Mass Balance
soda api (NaOH), sebanyak 1000 kg/jam larutan
mengandung 7,5% NaOH di pekatkan pada
evaporator yang pertama sehingga kadarnya
menjadi 20%. Larutan ini lalu dipekatkan pada
evaporator yang kedua yang menghasilkan
pekatan berkadar 60% NaOH. Hitung NaOH yang
dihasilkan.
contoh
Bahan bakar mengandung 5 %mol H2, 30 %mol
CO, 5 %mol CO2, 1 %mol O2, dan 59 %mol N2.
Dibakar dengan media udara. Untuk 100 kg mol
bahan bakar hitung mol gas buang dan
kamponennya, jika :
A. Pembakaran sempurna, udara pas
B. Pembakaran 90% sempurna
C. Udara berlebih 20%, pembakaran sempurna
80%
contoh
Larutan NaOH diproduksi dengan cara
menambahkan larutan Na2CO3 10% ke dalam
aliran bubur Ca(OH) 2 25%. Bagaimana komposisi
bubur akhir jika reaksi 90% sempurna dan 100%
sempurna. Gunakan dasar 100 kg aliran bubur
Ca(OH)2
Na2CO3 + Ca(OH) 2 => 2NaOH + CaCO3
Ca(OH) 2= 74,1; Na2CO3 = 106
Recycle
Pada suatu proses produksi sodium sitrat,
1000kg/jam larutan sodium sitrat berkadar 20%
dipekatkan di suatu evaporator bersuhu 353K
sehingga diperoleh kadar 50%. Larutan lalu
dimasukkan ke kristalizer yang bersuhu 303K
sehingga diperoleh kristal Na sitrat berkadar 95%.
Larutan jenuh yang mengandung 30% Na sitrat lalu
direcycle ke evaporator. Hitung berapa laju aliran
recycle dan produk yang dihasilkan.
Harap dikerjakan
Pada industri gula, larutan gula 1000 kg/jam
berkadar 30% dipekatkan hingga berkadar 60%.
Larutan tersebut lalu dimasukkan ke kristalizer
sehingga diperoleh kristal gula berkadar air 5%.
Larutan jenuh berkadar gula 40% selanjutnya
direcycle ke evaporator lagi. Hitung jumlah larutan
yang direcycle dan gula yang dihasilkan.
FLUID STATICS
very important property : the fluid pressure
Pressure is force exerted on an area
force is equal to the mass of the material multiplied by
the acceleration due to gravity.
mass of a fluid can be calculated by multiplying its volume
by its density
F = mg = Vg
F is force (Newton) or kg m s-2, m is the mass, g the
acceleration due to gravity, V the volume and the density.
The force per unit area in a fluid is called the fluid pressure. It is exerted
equally in all directions.
F = APs + ZAg
Ps is the pressure above the surface of the
fluid (e.g. it might be atmospheric pressure
total pressure P = F/A = Ps + Zg
the atmospheric pressure represents a
datum P = Zg
Density of water
= 1000 kg m-3
Density of oil
= 0.92 x 1000 kg m-3 = 920 kg m-3
Z =greatest depth
=2m
and
g = 9.81 m s-2
Now P = Zg
= 2 x 920 x 9.81 kg m-1 s-2
= 18,050 Pa = 18.1 kPa.
To this must be added the pressure at the surface of 70 kPa.
Total pressure
= 70 + 18.1 = 88.1 kPa.
the pressure depends upon the pressure at the top of the tank, the
depth of the liquid
head
Water
Mercury Z
= P/ g
= (100 x 103)/ (1000 x 9.81)
= 10.2 m
= (100 x 103)/ (13,600 x 9.81)
= 0.75m
FLUID DYNAMICS
In most processes fluids have to be moved
Problems on the flow of fluids are solved by
applying the principles of conservation of mass and
energy
The motion of fluids can be described by writing
appropriate mass and energy balances and these
are the bases for the design of fluid handling
equipment.
Mass Balance
1A1v1 = 2A2v2
incompressible
1 = 2
so in this case
A1v1 = A2v2
(continuity equation)
area of the pipe at
section 1 is A1 , the
velocity at this section,
v1 and the fluid
density 1 , and if the
corresponding values
at section 2 are A2,
v2, 2
Solving
1A1v1 = 2A2v2 + 3A3v3
where suffixes 1, 2, 3 denote respectively raw milk, skim milk and
cream.
since the total leaving volumes equal the total entering volume
A1v1 = A2v2 + A3v3
v2 = (A1v1 - A3v3 )/A2
1A1v1 = 2A2(A1v1 A3v3)/A2 + 3A3v3
1 A1v1 = 2 A1v1 - 2 A3v3 + 3 A3v3
A1v1(1 - 2 ) = A3v3(3 - 2 )
Energy Balance
Referring Fig. before we shall consider the changes in the total energy of unit
mass of fluid, one kilogram, between Section 1 and Section 2.
Firstly, there are the changes in the intrinsic energy of the fluid itself which include
changes in:
(1) Potential energy = Ep = Zg (J)
(2) Kinetic energy = Ek = v2/2 (J)
(3) Pressure energy = Er = P/ (J)
Secondly, there may be energy interchange with the surroundings including:
(4) Energy lost to the surroundings due to friction = E (J).
(5) Mechanical energy added by pumps = Ec (J).
(6) Heat energy in heating or cooling the fluid
In the analysis of the energy balance, it must be remembered that energies are
normally measured from a datum or reference level.
Ep1 + Ek1 + Er1 = Ep2 + Ek2 + Er2 + Ef - Ec.
Z1g + v12/2 + P1/1 = Z2g + v22/2 + P2/2 + Ef - Ec.
Zg + v2/2 + P/ = k
Persamaan Bernouilli
Water flows at the rate of 0.4 m3 min-1 in a 7.5 cm diameter pipe at a pressure of 70
kPa. If the pipe reduces to 5 cm diameter calculate the new pressure in the pipe.
Density of water is 1000 kg m-3.
Water is raised from a reservoir up 35 m to a storage tank through a 7.5 cm diameter pipe. If it
is required to raise 1.6 cubic metres of water per minute, calculate the horsepower input to a
pump assuming that the pump is 100% efficient and that there is no friction loss in the pipe.
1 Horsepower = 0.746 kW.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is that property of a fluid that gives rise to forces
that resist the relative movement of adjacent layers in the
fluid.
Viscous forces are of the same character as shear
forces in solids and they arise from forces that exist
between the molecules.
If two parallel plane elements in a fluid are moving relative
to one another, it is found that a steady force must be
applied to maintain a constant relative speed. This force is
called the viscous drag because it arises from the action of
viscous forces.
If the plane elements are at a distance Z apart, and if their relative velocity is v, then
the force F required to maintain the motion has been found, experimentally, to be
proportional to v and inversely proportional to Z for many fluids. The coefficient of
proportionality is called the viscosity of the fluid, and it is denoted by the symbol
(mu).
From the definition of viscosity we can write
F/A = v/Z
Unit of Viscosity
Friction in Pipes
Energy Losses in Bends and Fittings
Pressure Drop through Equipment
Equivalent Lengths of Pipe
Friction in Pipes
E : the energy loss due to friction in the pipe.
E : proportional to the velocity pressure of the fluid and to a factor related
to the smoothness of the surface over which the fluid is flowing.
F/A = f v2/2
F is the friction force, A is the area over which the friction force acts, is
the density of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, and f is a coefficient
called the friction factor (depends upon the Reynolds number for the flow, and
upon the roughness of the pipe).
P1 - P2 = (4fv2/2)(L1 - L2)/D
Pf = (4fv2/2) x (L/D)
(Fanning-D'Arcy equation)
E = Pf/ = (2fv2)(L/D)
L = L1 - L2 = length of pipe in which the pressure drop, Pf = P1 - P2 is the
frictional pressure drop, and E is the frictional loss of energy.
predicted f
f = 16/(Re) streamline flow, Hagen-Poiseuille
equation 0 < (Re) < 2100
= 0.316 ( Re)-0.25/4 ( Blasius equation for smooth
pipes in the range 3000 < (Re) < 100,000)
roughness ratio = Roughness factor ()/pipe
diameter
(turbulent region)
Roughness factor
()
Material
Roughness factor
()
Riveted steel
0.001- 0.01
Galvanized
iron
0.0002
Concrete
0.0003 - 0.003
Asphalted
cast iron
0.001
Wood staves
0.0002 - 0.003
Commercial
steel
0.00005
Cast iron
0.0003
Pf = (4fv2/2) x (L/D)
Water
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
Density
Viscosity
Temperature
(kg m-3)
(N s m-2)
(C)
0.57
4.21
1000
1.87 x 10-3
4.21
987
0.56 x 10-3
50
0.68
4.18
958
0.28 x 10-3
100
0.54
3.8
1070
1.92 x 10-3
20
0.59 x 10-3
80
6.2 x 10-3
20
5.4 x 10-3
80
60% soln.
Sodium chloride 22% soln.
0.54
3.4
1240
2.7 x 10-3
Olive oil
0.17
2.0
910
84 x 10-3
20
Rape-seed oil
900
118 x 10-3
20
Soya-bean oil
910
40 x 10-3
30
Tallow
900
18 x 10-3
65
1030
2.12 x 10-3
20
Milk (skim)
1040
1.4 x 10-3
25
1010
6.2 x 10-3
30% fat
1000
13,8 x 10-3
Milk (whole)
0.56
3.9
FRICTION LOSS
FACTORS IN FITTINGS
k
Valves, fully open:
LOSS FACTORS IN
CONTRACTIONS
gate
0.13
globe
6.0
angle
3.0
90 standard
0.74
D2/D1
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
medium sweep
0.5
long radius
0.25
0.36
0.31
0.22
0.11
0.02
square
1.5
Elbows:
1.5
0.5
0.5
rounded
0.05
FLUID-FLOW APPLICATIONS
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE IN A
FLUID
Method :
Piezometer ("pressure measuring") tube
U-tube
Pitot tube
Pitot-static tube
Bourdon-tube
P = Z11g
We have P = Zg
= 25 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81
= 33.4 kPa
Therefore the pressure in the evaporator is 33.4 kPa below atmospheric pressure
and this is the vacuum in the evaporator.
For atmospheric pressure:
P = Zg
P = 75.4 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81
= 100.6 kPa
Therefore the absolute pressure in the evaporator
= 100.6 - 33.4
= 67.2 kPa
= 0.8 x 10-3 x
= 0.62 m of air
v 12
= 2Zg
= 2 x 0.62 x 9.81
= 12.16 m2s-2
Therefore v1 = 3.5 m s-1
1000
1.3
A1v1 = A2v2
1 = 2 =
Z = (P2 -P1)/m g
Jenis Pompa
Positive Displacement Pumps
the fluid is drawn into the pump and is then forced
through the outlet
Positive displacement pumps can develop highpressure heads but they cannot tolerate throttling or
blockages in the discharge.
Jet Pumps
a high-velocity jet is produced in a Venturi nozzle, converting the
energy of the fluid into velocity energy.
This produces a low-pressure area causing the surrounding fluid to
be drawn into the throat
Jet pumps are used for difficult materials that cannot be satisfactorily
handled in a mechanical pump.
They are also used as vacuum pumps.
Jet pumps have relatively low efficiencies but they have no moving
parts and therefore have a low initial cost.
Air-lift Pumps
Reynold number
Assume properties of water at 20C are density 998 kg m-3, and viscosity 0.001 N
s m-2
Cross-sectional area of pipe A = (/4)D2
= /4 x (0.15)2
= 0.0177 m-2
Volume of flow V = 1.2 m3 min-1
= 1.2/60 m3 s-1
= 0.02 m3 s-1.
TABLE 3.1
RELATIVE ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR PIPES
Material
Roughness factor ()
Material
Roughness factor ()
Riveted steel
0.001- 0.01
Galvanized iron
0.0002
Concrete
0.0003 - 0.003
Asphalted cast
iron
0.001
Wood staves
0.0002 - 0.003
Commercial
steel
0.00005
Cast iron
0.0003
Drawn tubing
Smooth
TABLE 3.2
FRICTION LOSS FACTORS IN FITTINGS
k
Valves, fully open:
gate
0.13
globe
6.0
angle
3.0
90 standard
0.74
medium sweep
0.5
long radius
0.25
square
1.5
Elbows:
1.5
0.5
0.5
rounded
0.05
Energy Balance
Jawaban:
An empty can was sealed in a room at 80oC and 1 atm pressure. Assuming that only
air is inside the sealed can, what will be the vacuum after the can and contents cool to
20oC?
Solution:
Calculate the quantity of air in the headspace of a can at 20oC when the vacuum in
the can is 10 in. Hg. Atmospheric pressure is 30 in. Hg. The headspace has a volume
of 16.4 cm3. The headspace is saturated with water vapor
Temperature
Pressure
(C)
20
22
24
26
28
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
150
160
(kPa)
2.34
2.65
2.99
3.36
3.78
4.25
7.38
12.3
19.9
31.2
47.4
70.1
101.35
120.8
143.3
169.1
198.5
232.1
270.1
313.0
361.3
475.8
617.8
Enthalpy
(sat. vap.)
(kJ kg-1)
2538
2542
2545
2549
2553
2556
2574
2592
2610
2627
2644
2660
2676
2684
2692
2699
2706
2714
2721
2727
2734
2747
2758
Latent heat
(kJ kg-1)
2454
2449
2445
2440
2435
2431
2407
2383
2359
2334
2309
2283
2257
2244
2230
2217
2203
2189
2174
2160
2145
2114
2083
Specific
volume
(m3 kg-1)
57.8
51.4
45.9
40.0
36.6
32.9
19.5
12.0
7.67
5.04
3.41
2.36
1.673
1.42
1.21
1.04
0.892
0.771
0.669
0.582
0.509
0.393
0.307
Heat
Sensible heat is defined as the energy transferred between two bodies at different
temperatures, or the energy present in a body by virtue of its temperature.
Latent heat is the energy associated with phase transitions, heat of fusion, from
solid to liquid, and heat of vaporization, from liquid to vapor.
Enthalpy, is an intrinsic property, the absolute value of which cannot be measured
directly.
However, if a reference state is chosen for all components that enter and leave a
system such that at this state the enthalpy is considered to be zero, then the
change in enthalpy from the reference state to the current state of a component
can be considered as the value of the absolute enthalpy for the system under
consideration.
The reference temperature (Tref) for determining the enthalpy of water in the
steam tables is 32.018F or 0.01C.
Specific Heat
The specific heat (Cp) is the amount of heat that
accompanies a unit change in temperature for a
unit mass.
The specific heat, which varies with temperature, is
more variable for gases compared with liquids or
solids.
Most solids and liquids have a constant specific
heat over a fairly wide temperature range.
specific heat
J/(kg K)
Estimation of Cp
Cavg = 3349M+ 837.36 in J/(kg K) for fat free plant material
Cavg = 1674.72 F + 837.36 SNF + 4l86.8M in J/(kg K)
the mass fraction fat (F), mass fraction solids non-fat (SNF),
and mass fraction moisture (M)
Example: Calculate the heat required to raise the
temperature of a 4.535 kg roast beef containing 15% protein,
20% fat, and 65% water from 4.44C to 65.55C
Solution:
Cavg = 0.15(837.36) + 0.2(1674.72) + 0.65(4186.8) = 3182 J/
(kg K)
q = 4.535 kg[3182 J/(kg K)] (65.55 4.44)K = 0.882 MJ
Contoh
Hitung kebutuhan panas untuk menaikkan suhu
udara pengering pd tekanan 1 atm dari suhu ruang
25oC ke suhu pengeringan 50oC jika tiap menit
dialirkan udara sebanyak 100m 3
q= mCp (50-25)
m=PVM/RT
R = 0.08206 m3 atm/kg mole K
Steam and water are the two most used heat transfer mediums in food processing. Water is also a major component of food
products. The steam tables that list the properties of steam are a very useful reference when determining heat exchange
involving a food product and steam or water. At temperatures above the freezing point, water can exist in either of the following
forms.
Saturated Liquid:. Liquid water in equilibrium with its vapor. The total pressure above the liquid must be equal to or be higher
than the vapor pressure. If the total pressure above the liquid exceeds the vapor pressure, some other gas is present in the
atmosphere above the liquid. If the total pressure above a liquid equals the vapor pressure, the liquid is at the boiling point.
Saturated Vapor: This is also known as saturated steam and is vapor at the boiling temperature of the liquid. Lowering the
temperature of saturated steam at constant pressure by a small increment will cause vapor to condense to liquid. The phase
change is accompanied by a release of heat. If heat is removed from the system, temperature and pressure will remain
constant until all vapor is converted to liquid. Adding heat to the system will change either temperature or pressure or both.
Vapor-Liquid Mixtures: Steam with less than 100% quality. Temperature and pressure correspond to the boiling point;
therefore, water could exist either as saturated liquid or saturated vapor. Addition of heat will not change temperature and
pressure until all saturated liquid is converted to vapor. Removing heat from the system will also not change temperature and
pressure until all vapor is converted to liquid.
Steam Quality: The percentage of a vapor-liquid mixture that is in the form of saturated vapor.
Superheated Steam: Water vapor at a temperature higher than the boiling point. The number of degrees the temperature
exceeds the boiling temperature is the degrees superheat. Addition of heat to superheated steam could increase the
superheat at constant pressure or change both the pressure and temperature at constant volume. Removing heat will allow
the temperature to drop to the boiling temperature where the temperature will remain constant until all the vapor has
condensed.
Steam table
The saturated steam table consists of entries under the headings of
temperature, absolute pressure, specific volume, and enthalpy.
Temperature
Pressure
(C)
20
22
24
26
28
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
150
160
(kPa)
2.34
2.65
2.99
3.36
3.78
4.25
7.38
12.3
19.9
31.2
47.4
70.1
101.35
120.8
143.3
169.1
198.5
232.1
270.1
313.0
361.3
475.8
617.8
Enthalpy
(sat. vap.)
(kJ kg-1)
2538
2542
2545
2549
2553
2556
2574
2592
2610
2627
2644
2660
2676
2684
2692
2699
2706
2714
2721
2727
2734
2747
2758
Latent heat
(kJ kg-1)
2454
2449
2445
2440
2435
2431
2407
2383
2359
2334
2309
2283
2257
2244
2230
2217
2203
2189
2174
2160
2145
2114
2083
Specific
volume
(m3 kg-1)
57.8
51.4
45.9
40.0
36.6
32.9
19.5
12.0
7.67
5.04
3.41
2.36
1.673
1.42
1.21
1.04
0.892
0.771
0.669
0.582
0.509
0.393
0.307
contoh
Pada tekanan vakum berapa sehingga air mendidih pada suhu 80 oC,
nyatakan dalam kPa dan dalam cm Hg
Lihat tabel uap= 47,4 kPa abs
Tekanan vakum = 101 - 47,4 = 53,6 kPa
Tekanan vakum = (53,6/101) x 76 = 40,3 cmHg
Calculate the freezing point and the amount of heat that must
be removed in order to freeze 1 kg of grape juice containing
25% solids from the freezing point to 30 C.
Solution:
Y = 0.75.
for juices: Tf = 120.47 + 327.35(0.75) 176.49(0.75)2 = 266.7 K
Hf = 9792.46 + 405,096(0.75) = 313, 614 J
a = 0.362 + 0.0498(0.02) 3.465(0.02)2 = 0.3616
b = 27.2 129.04(0.1316) 481.46(0.1316)2 = 1.879
Tr = (30 + 273 227.6)/(266.7 227.6) = 0.394
H = 313,614[(0.3616)0.394 + (1 0.3616)(0.394)1.879 ]= 79, 457 J/kg
The enthalpy change from Tf to 30 C is
H = 313,614 79, 457 = 234, 157 J/kg