Chapter 4

Functional
Anatomy of
Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells

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Copyright 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lectures prepared by Christine L. Case

Lectures prepared by Christine L. Case

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryote comes from the Greek words for
prenucleus.
Eukaryote comes from the Greek words for
true nucleus.

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Prokaryote

Eukaryote

One circular
chromosome, not in a
membrane
No histones
No organelles
Bacteria: peptidoglycan
cell walls
Archaea: pseudomurein
cell walls
Binary fission

Paired chromosomes,
in nuclear membrane
Histones

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Organelles
Polysaccharide cell
walls
Mitotic spindle

Prokaryotic Cells: Shapes

Average size: 0.21.0 m 28 m
Most bacteria are monomorphic
A few are pleomorphic

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Figure 4.9b Flagella and bacterial motility.

A Proteus cell in the swarming stage may have

more than 1000 peritrichous flagella.
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Basic Shapes
Bacillus (rod-shaped)
Coccus (spherical)
Spiral
Spirillum
Vibrio
Spirochete

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Figure 4.1a Arrangements of cocci.

Plane of
division
Diplococci

Streptococci

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Figure 4.2ad Bacilli.

Single bacillus

Coccobacillus

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Figure 4.4 Spiral bacteria.

Vibrio

Spirillum

Spirochete
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Bacillus or Bacillus
Scientific name: Bacillus
Shape: bacillus

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Arrangements
Pairs: diplococci, diplobacilli
Clusters: staphylococci
Chains: streptococci, streptobacilli

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Figure 4.1ad Arrangements of cocci.

Plane of
division
Diplococci

Streptococci

Staphylococci

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Figure 4.2b-c Bacilli.

Diplobacilli

Streptobacilli

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Figure 4.6 The Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell.

Pilus

Cell wall
The drawing below and the
Capsule
micrograph at right show a bacterium
sectioned lengthwise to reveal the
Although the nucleoid appears
internal composition. Not all bacteria
split in the photomicrograph,
have all the structures shown; only
the thinness of the slice does
structures labeled in red are found in
not convey theobjects depth.
all bacteria.
Cytoplasm
70S Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Nucleoid containing DNA
Inclusions

Plasmid
Fimbriae
Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane

Flagella
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Glycocalyx

Outside cell wall

Usually sticky
Capsule: neatly organized
Slime layer: unorganized and loose
Extracellular polysaccharide allows cell to attach
Capsules prevent phagocytosis

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Figure 24.12 Streptococcus pneumoniae, the cause of pneumococcal pneumonia.

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Flagella

Outside cell wall

Made of chains of flagellin
Attached to a protein hook
Anchored to the wall and membrane by the
basal body

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Figure 4.8b The structure of a prokaryotic flagellum.

Grampositive

Flagellum
Filament

Cell wall
Hook
Basal body

Peptidoglycan

Plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm

Parts and attachment of a flagellum of a

gram-positive bacterium
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Figure 4.8a The structure of a prokaryotic flagellum.

Flagellum
Gramnegative

Filament

Hook
Basal body

Cell wall

Peptidoglycan
Outer
membrane

Plasma
membrane

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Cytoplasm

Parts and attachment of a flagellum of a

gram-negative bacterium

Figure 4.7 Arrangements of bacterial flagella.

Peritrichous

Lophotrichous and polar

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Monotrichous and polar

Amphitrichous and polar

Motile Cells
Rotate flagella to run or tumble
Move toward or away from stimuli (taxis)
Flagella proteins are H antigens
(e.g., E. coli O157:H7)

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Axial Filaments

Also called endoflagella

In spirochetes
Anchored at one end of a cell
Rotation causes cell to move

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Figure 4.10a Axial filaments.

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A photomicrograph of the spirochete

Leptospira, showing an axial filament

Figure 4.10b Axial filaments.

Outer sheath

Cell wall

Axial filament

A diagram of axial filaments wrapping around

part of a spirochete (see Figure 11.26a for a
cross section of axial filaments)
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Fimbriae and Pili

Fimbriae allow attachment

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Figure 4.11 Fimbriae.

Fimbriae

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Fimbriae and Pili

Pili
Facilitate transfer of DNA from one cell to another
Gliding motility
Twitching motility

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The Cell Wall

Prevents osmotic lysis
Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria)

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Figure 4.6 The Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell (Part 1 of 2).

Pilus

Cytoplasm
70S Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Nucleoid containing DNA
Inclusions

Plasmid
Fimbriae
Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane

Flagella

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Peptidoglycan
Polymer of disaccharide:
N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)

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Peptidoglycan in Gram-Positive
Bacteria
Linked by polypeptides

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Figure 4.13a Bacterial cell walls.

N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
Side-chain amino acid
Cross-bridge amino acid

Tetrapeptide side chain

Peptide cross-bridge

NAM

Peptide
bond

NAG

NAG

Structure of peptidoglycan in
gram-positive bacteria
.

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Carbohydrate
backbone

Gram-Positive
Cell Wall

Gram-Negative
Cell Wall

Thick peptidoglycan
Teichoic acids

Thin peptidoglycan
Outer membrane
Periplasmic space

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Figure 4.13b-c Bacterial cell walls.

Wall teichoic acid

Peptidoglycan

Lipoteichoic
acid

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Protein

O polysaccharide
Core polysaccharide

Gram-positive cell wall

Core polysaccharide
O polysaccharide

Lipopolysaccharide

Lipid A

Cell wall

Gram-negative cell wall

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Lipid A
Parts of the LPS
Porin protein
Lipoprotein

Outer membrane

Phospholipid

Peptidoglycan
Plasma
membrane
Periplasm

Protein

Gram-Positive Cell Walls

Teichoic acids
Lipoteichoic acid links to plasma membrane
Wall teichoic acid links to peptidoglycan

May regulate movement of cations

Polysaccharides provide antigenic variation

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Figure 4.13b Bacterial cell walls.

Wall teichoic acid

Lipoteichoic
acid

Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Protein

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Peptidoglycan

Gram-Negative Outer Membrane

Lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins, phospholipids
Forms the periplasm between the outer membrane
and the plasma membrane

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Figure 4.13c Bacterial cell walls.

O polysaccharide
Core polysaccharide
Core polysaccharide
O polysaccharide

Lipopolysaccharide

Lipid A

Cell wall

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Lipid A
Parts of the LPS
Porin protein
Lipoprotein

Outer membrane

Phospholipid

Peptidoglycan
Plasma
membrane
Periplasm

Protein

Gram-Negative Outer Membrane

Protection from phagocytes, complement, and
antibiotics
O polysaccharide antigen, e.g., E. coli O157:H7
Lipid A is an endotoxin
Porins (proteins) form channels through membrane

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The Gram Stain Mechanism

Crystal violet-iodine crystals form in cell
Gram-positive
Alcohol dehydrates peptidoglycan
CV-I crystals do not leave

Gram-negative
Alcohol dissolves outer membrane and leaves holes in
peptidoglycan
CV-I washes out

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Table 4.1 Some Comparative Characteristics of Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria

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Gram-Positive
Cell Wall

Gram-Negative
Cell Wall

2-ring basal body

Disrupted by lysozyme
Penicillin sensitive

4-ring basal body

Endotoxin
Tetracycline sensitive

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Figure 4.13b-c Bacterial cell walls.

Gram-positive cell wall

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Gram-negative cell wall

Atypical Cell Walls

Acid-fast cell walls

Like gram-positive cell walls

Waxy lipid (mycolic acid) bound to peptidoglycan
Mycobacterium
Nocardia

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Figure 24.8 Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

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Atypical Cell Walls

Mycoplasmas
Lack cell walls
Sterols in plasma membrane

Archaea
Wall-less, or
Walls of pseudomurein (lack NAM and D-amino acids)

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Damage to the Cell Wall

Lysozyme digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan

Penicillin inhibits peptide bridges in peptidoglycan
Protoplast is a wall-less cell
Spheroplast is a wall-less gram negative cell
Protoplasts and spheroplasts are susceptiblenegative to
osmotic lysis

L forms are wall-less cells that swell into irregular

shapes

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Figure 4.14a Plasma membrane.

Lipid
bilayer of plasma
membrane
Peptidoglycan
Outer membrane

Plasma membrane
of cell

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The Plasma Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer
Peripheral proteins
Integral proteins
Transmembrane
Proteins

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Figure 4.14b Plasma membrane.

Outside
Lipid
bilayer

Pore
Peripheral protein

Inside

Polar head
Nonpolar fatty
acid tails

Polar head

Lipid bilayer of plasma membrane

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Integral
proteins
Peripheral protein

Fluid Mosaic Model

Membrane is as viscous as olive oil
Proteins move to function
Phospholipids rotate and move laterally

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The Plasma Membrane

Selective permeability allows passage of some
molecules
Enzymes for ATP production
Photosynthetic pigments on foldings called
chromatophores or thylakoids

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Figure 4.15 Chromatophores.

Chromatophores

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The Plasma Membrane

Damage to the membrane by alcohols, quaternary
ammonium (detergents), and polymyxin antibiotics
causes leakage of cell contents

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Movement of Materials across

Membranes
Simple diffusion: movement of a solute from an
area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration

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Figure 4.17a Passive processes.

Outside

Plasma
membrane

Inside

Simple diffusion through

the lipid bilayer
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Movement of Materials across

Membranes
Facilitated diffusion: solute combines with a
transporter protein in the membrane

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Figure 4.17b-c Passive processes.

Nonspecific
transporter
Transported
substance

Specific
transporter

Glucose

Facilitated
diffusion
through a
nonspecific
transporter

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Facilitated diffusion through

a specific transporter

Movement of Materials across

Membranes
Osmosis: the movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane from an area of
high water to an area of lower water concentration
Osmotic pressure: the pressure needed to stop the
movement of water across the membrane

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Figure 4.18a The principle of osmosis.

Glass tube

Rubber
stopper
Rubber
band
Sucrose
molecule
Cellophane
sack
Water
molecule
At beginning of osmotic
pressure experiment
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Movement of Materials across

Membranes
Through lipid layer
Aquaporins (water channels)

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Figure 4.17d Passive processes.

Aquaporin

Osmosis through the lipid bilayer

(left) and an aquaporin (right)
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Figure 4.18a-b The principle of osmosis.

Glass tube
Rubber
stopper
Rubber
band
Sucrose
molecule
Cellophane
sack
Water
molecule

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At beginning of osmotic
pressure experiment

At equilibrium

Figure 4.18c-e The principle of osmosis.

Cytoplasm Solute

Plasma
membrane

Water

Isotonic solution.
No net movement
of water occurs.

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Hypotonic solution. Water moves

into the cell. If the cell wall is
strong, it contains the swelling. If
the cell wall is weak or damaged,
the cell bursts (osmotic lysis).

Hypertonic solution.
Water moves out of the
cell, causing its
cytoplasm to shrink
(plasmolysis).

Movement of Materials across

Membranes
Active transport: requires a transporter protein and
ATP

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Cytoplasm
The substance inside the plasma membrane

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The Nucleoid
Bacterial chromosome

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Figure 4.6 The Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell.

Pilus

Cell wall
The drawing below and the
Capsule
micrograph at right show a bacterium
sectioned lengthwise to reveal the
Although the nucleoid appears
internal composition. Not all bacteria
split in the photomicrograph,
have all the structures shown; only
the thinness of the slice does
structures labeled in red are found in
not convey theobjects depth.
all bacteria.
Cytoplasm
70S Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Nucleoid containing DNA
Inclusions

Plasmid
Fimbriae
Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane

Flagella
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The Prokaryotic Ribosome

Protein synthesis
70S
50S + 30S subunits

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Figure 4.19 The prokaryotic ribosome.

50S
30S
Small subunit

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50S
Large subunit

30S
Complete 70S
ribosome

Inclusions
Reserve deposits accumulate when nutrients are
plentiful and used when the environment is deficient
Examples
Lipid inclusionsenergy reserves
Sulfur granulesenergy reserves

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Endospores

Resting cells
Resistant to desiccation, heat, chemicals
Bacillus, Clostridium
Sporulation: endospore formation
Germination: return to vegetative state

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Figure 4.21b Formation of endospores by sporulation.

Endospore

An endospore of Bacillus subtilis

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Figure 4.21a Formation of endospores by sporulation.

Cell wall

Cytoplasm

Spore septum begins to isolate

newly replicated DNA and a
small portion of cytoplasm.

Plasma membrane starts to

surround DNA, cytoplasm, and
membrane isolated in step 1.

Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
(DNA)
Sporulation, the process of endospore
formation

Spore septum surrounds isolated portion,

forming forespore.

Two
membranes

Peptidoglycan
layer forms between membranes.

Endospore is freed
from cell.

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Spore coat forms.

Figure 4.22a Eukaryotic cells showing typical structures.

PLANT CELL

ANIMAL CELL

Peroxisome

Flagellum

Mitochondrion
Microfilament
Golgi complex
Microtubule
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Ribosome
Cytoplasm
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Cell wall

Nucleus
Nucleolus
Golgi complex
Basal body
Cytoplasm
Microfilament
Lysosome
Centrosome:
Centriole
Pericentriolar material

Ribosome
Microtubule

Nucleus
Nucleolus
Plasma membrane
Highly schematic diagram of a composite eukaryotic cell,
half plant and half animal
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Peroxisome
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Mitochondrion
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Plasma membrane

Figure 4.23a-b Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Flagellum

Cilia

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Flagella and Cilia

Microtubules
Tubulin
9 pairs + 2 array

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Figure 4.23c Eukaryotic flagella and cilia.

Central
microtubules

Doublet
microtubules

Plasma
membrane

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The internal structure of a flagellum (or cilium), showing

the 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules.

The Cell Wall and Glycocalyx

Cell wall
Plants, algae, fungi
Carbohydrates

Cellulose, chitin, glucan, mannan

Glycocalyx
Carbohydrates extending from animal plasma membrane
Bonded to proteins and lipids in membrane

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The Plasma Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer
Peripheral proteins
Integral proteins
Transmembrane proteins
Sterols
Glycocalyx carbohydrates

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The Plasma Membrane

Selective permeability allows passage of some
molecules
Simple diffusion
Facilitative diffusion
Osmosis
Active transport
Endocytosis
Phagocytosis: pseudopods extend and engulf particles
Pinocytosis: membrane folds inward, bringing in fluid and
dissolved substances
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Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm membrane: substance inside plasma
and outside nucleus
Cytosol: fluid portion of cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, microtubules
Cytoplasmic streaming: movement of cytoplasm
throughout cells

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Ribosomes
Protein synthesis
80S
Membrane-bound: attached to ER
Free: in cytoplasm

70S
In chloroplasts and mitochondria

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Organelles

Nucleus: contains chromosomes

ER: transport network
Golgi complex: membrane formation and secretion
Lysosome: digestive enzymes
Vacuole: brings food into cells and provides support

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Organelles

Mitochondrion: cellular respiration

Chloroplast: photosynthesis
Peroxisome: oxidation of fatty acids; destroys H2O2
Centrosome: consists of protein fibers and
centrioles

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Figure 4.24c The eukaryotic nucleus.

Nuclear
pore(s)

Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin

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Figure 4.24a-b The eukaryotic nucleus.

Nuclear
pore(s)
Nuclear
envelope

Ribosomes

Nucleolus
Chromatin

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Figure 4.25 Rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.

Nuclear envelope
Ribosomes
Cisternae

Smooth ER Ribosomes

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Rough ER

Figure 4.26 Golgi complex.

Secretory
vesicles
Transfer
vesicles
Cisternae
Transport
vesicle from
rough ER

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Figure 4.27 Mitochondria.

Matrix
Cristae Inner
membrane

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Outer
membrane

Figure 4.28a Chloroplasts.

Granum

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Thylakoids

Figure 10.2 A model of the origin of eukaryotes.

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