Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hot-Wire Anemometry: Purpose: To Measure Mean and Fluctuating Velocities in Fluid Flows
Hot-Wire Anemometry: Purpose: To Measure Mean and Fluctuating Velocities in Fluid Flows
Hot-Wire Anemometry
Purpose:
to measure mean and fluctuating velocities in
fluid flows
http://www.dantecmt.com/
www.tsi.com/
Principles of operation
If velocity changes,
convective heat
transfer coefficient
will change, wire
temperature will
change and
eventually reach a
new equilibrium.
C u rre n t I
S e n s o r d im e n s io n s :
le n g t h ~ 1 m m
d ia m e t e r ~ 5 m ic r o m e t e r
W ir e s u p p o r ts
( S t. S t. n e e d le s )
V e lo c ity U
S e n s o r ( th in w ir e )
Governing equation I
Governing Equation:
dE
W H
dt
Governing equation II
( convection to fluid
+ conduction to supports
+ radiation to surroundings)
Convection
Conduction
Radiation
f(Tw4 - Tf4)
Qc = Nu A (Tw -Ta)
Nu = h d/kf = f (Re, Pr, M, Gr, ),
Re = U/
Assumptions
=
=
=
=
=
I Rw = hA(Tw -Ta)
2
Nu = A1 + B1 Ren = A2+ B2 Un
I2Rw2 = E2 = (Tw -Ta)(A + B Un)
Kings law
5
dU/dE/U volts^-1
2,4
E volts
2,2
2
1,8
1,6
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
U m /s
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
U m /s
Directional response I
Probe coordinate system
y
Uy
Uz
Ux
Directional response II
=0
=0
where:
k , h = yaw and pitch factors
Directional response IV
Probe types I
Gold-Plated Probes
3 mm total wire length,
1.25 mm active sensor
copper ends, gold-plated
Advantages:
- accurately defined sensing length
- reduced heat dissipation by the prongs
- more uniform temperature distribution
along wire
- less probe interference to the flow field
Probe types II
Important considerations:
Wire length should be as short as possible (spatial resolution;
want probe length << eddy size)
Aspect ratio (l/d) should be high (to minimise effects of end losses)
Wire should resist oxidation until high temperatures (want to
operate wire at high T to get good sensitivity, high signal to noise
ratio)
Temperature coefficient of resistance should be high (for high
sensitivity, signal to noise ratio and frequency response)
Wires of less than 5 m diameter cannot be drawn with reliable
diameters
Film Probes
Thin metal film (nickel) deposited on quartz
body. Thin quartz layer protects metal film
against corrosion, wear, physical damage,
electrical action
Fiber-Film Probes
Hybrid - film deposited on a thin
wire-like quartz rod (fiber) split fiber-film
probes.
Probe types IV
more rugged
worse frequency response
cannot be repaired
electrically insulated
protected against mechanical and
chemical action
Principle:
Current through
sensor is kept
constant
Advantages:
- High frequency
response
Disadvantages:
- Difficult to use
- Output decreases with velocity
- Risk of probe burnout
Principle:
Sensor resistance
is kept constant by
servo amplifier
Advantages:
- Easy to use
- High frequency
response
- Low noise
- Accepted standard
Disadvantages:
- More complex circuit
Rw = Ro(1+
Rw = wire hot resistance
Ro = wire resistance at To
=
temp.coeff. of resistance
Tw = wire temperature
To = reference temperature
a = (Rw-Ro)/Ro =
2,4
2,2
E v o lts
E2 = A + BUn
1,8
1,6
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
U m /s
40
W = H + dE/dt
The equation then becomes a differential equation:
= Cw/( n)
Hwire(f) = 1/(1+jf/fcp)
Where fcp is the frequency at which the amplitude damping is 3dB
(50% amplitude reduction) and the phase lag is 45o.
Frequency limit can be calculated from the time constant:
fcp = 1/2
= (R/R0)2F2 sCsks/(A+BUn)2
= substrate density
Cs = substrate heat capacity
ks = substrate heat conductivity
Hfilm(f) = 1/(1+(jf/fcp)0.5)
6 d B /o c ta v e
3 dB
30
T im e
R e s is t a n c e
R
0 .6 3 (R -R )
1
U p p e r f r e q u e n c y lim it f =
F re q u e n c y
T im e
or
CTA = CCA/(2aSRw)
where
a = overheat ratio
S = amplifier gain
Rw = wire hot resistance
Frequency limit:
fc defined as -3dB amplitude
damping
Po/P = (1+( 2)
a0 = ( 0 )0.5
a = ao/(1+( 2)0.5
U = Ma
E rro r (% )
2 .3 4 0
0 .5 0 0
2 .2 1 8
0 .3 0 0
2 .0 9 6
0 .1 0 0
E 1 (v )
E rro r (% )
1 .9 7 5
-0 .1 0 0
1 .8 5 3
-0 .3 0 0
1 .7 3 1
4 .0 7 6
1 1 .1 2
1 8 .1 7
2 5 .2 2
3 2 .2 7
3 9 .3 2
-0 .5 0 0
4 .0 7 6
1 1 .1 2
U v e lo c ity
1 8 .1 7
2 5 .2 2
3 2 .2 7
U v e lo c ity
U = C 0 + C 1 E + C 2 E 2 + C 3E 3 + C 4 E 4
3 9 .3 2
Dynamic calibration/tuning I
Direct method
Need a flow in which sinusoidal velocity variations of known
amplitude are superimposed on a constant mean velocity
- Microwave simulation of turbulence (<500 Hz)
- Sound field simulation of turbulence (>500 Hz)
- Vibrating the probe in a laminar flow (<1000Hz)
All methods are difficult and are restricted to low frequencies.
Dynamic calibration/tuning II
10
10
A m p litu d e ( m V r m s )
A m p litu d e ( m V r m s )
-3 d B
10
10
10
-3 d B
10
1
10
10
10
10
10
F re q u e n c y (H z )
10
10
10
10
10
10
F re q u e n c y (H z )
10
f =
c
0 .9 7 h
1
1 .3
0 .1 5 h
(From Bruun 1995)
fc = 1/1.3
Dynamic calibration
Conclusion:
Anything which changes this heat transfer (other than the flow
variable being measured) is a PROBLEM SOURCE!
Problem sources
Probe contamination I
dust particles
dirt
oil vapours
chemicals
Effects:
- Change flow sensitivity of sensor
(DC drift of calibration curve)
- Reduce frequency response
Cure:
- Clean the sensor
- Recalibrate
Problem Sources
Probe contamination II
Drift due to particle
contamination in air
5 m Wire, 70 m Fiber and
1.2 mm SteelClad Probes
20
(Um -Uact)/Uact*100%
10
0
w ire
fiber
-10
steel-clad
-20
0
10
20
30
40
50
Poly. (steelclad)
Poly. (fiber)
U (m /s)
Problem Sources
Probe contamination IV
Low Velocity
- slight effect of dirt on heat transfer
- heat transfer may even increase!
- effect of increased surface vs. insulating effect
High Velocity
- more contact with particles
- bigger problem in laminar flow
- turbulent flow has cleaning effect
Problem Sources
Probe contamination III
Drift due to particle contamination in water
Output voltage decreases with increasing dirt deposit
10
% voltage reduction
theory
1
fiber
w edge
0,1
0,001
0,01
0,1
Problem Sources
Bubbles in Liquids I
Problem Sources
Bubbles in Liquids II
e
Effect of bubbling on
portion of typical
calibration curve
Precautions
- Use low overheat!
- Let liquid stand before use!
155
175
1 9 5 c m /s e c
(From C.G.Rasmussen 1967)
Problem sources
Eddy shedding I
Occurs at Re ~50
Problem Sources
Eddy shedding II
Problem Sources
Temperature Variations I
E2 = (Tw-Ta)(A + BUn)
As Ta varies:
heat transfer changes
fluid properties change
Air measurements:
- limited effect at high overheat ratio
- changes in fluid properties are small
Liquid measurements effected more, because of:
lower overheats
stronger effects of T change on fluid properties
Purdue University - School of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Problem Sources
Temperature Variations II
Anemometer output depends on both velocity and
temperature
-1,5
T=20
-1,7
T=25
-1,9
T=30
-2,1
T=35
-2,3
T=40
-2,5
Tdiff=10 C
-2,7
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
10
20
30
40
2,4
2,3
2,2
2,1
2,0
1,9
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,5
Problem Sources
Temperature Variations III
Film probe calibrated at different temperatures
Problem Sources
Temperature Variations IV
Measurements in 2D Flows I
X-ARRAY PROBES (measures within 45o with respect to probe axis):
U = U1cos1 + U2cos2
U = U1cos1 + U2cos2
V = U1sin1 - U2sin2
V = U1sin1 - U2sin2
Measurements in 2D Flows II
U c 1 ,U c 2 v s . A n g le
K 1 ,K 2 v s . A n g le
3 4 .6 8
3 .0 0 0
2 9 .1 4
0 .6 0 0
2 3 .5 9
0 .2 0 0
U c 1 ,U c 2
K 1 ,K 2
1 8 .0 4
-0 .2 0 0
1 2 .4 9
-0 .6 0 0
6 .9 4 5
- 4 0 .0 0
-2 4 .0 0
-8 .0 0 0
8 .0 0 0
A n g le ( d e g )
2 4 .0 0
4 0 .0 0
-1 .0 0 0
-4 0 .0 0
-2 4 .0 0
-8 .0 0 0
8 .0 0 0
2 4 .0 0
4 0 .0 0
A n g le ( d e g )
Measurements in 3D Flows I
TRIAXIAL PROBES (measures within 70o cone around probe axis):
z
3
35
55
35
x
P ro b e s te m
45
Measurements in 3D Flows II
left hand sides are effective cooling velocities. Yaw and pitch
coefficients are determined by directional calibration.
Vmeas
Wmeas
Res,meas
Uact
Vact
Velocity component, m /s
Wact
-1
0,15
0,10
0,05
Up-Uact
Res,act
-2
0
0,00
Vp-Vact
-0,05
Wp-Wact
-0,10
-0,15
0
60
120
180
240
300
360
Roll angle
0.5
Eacq.
0.5(1m)
Eacq.
Selecting proper m (m= 0.2 typically for wire probe at a = 0.8) improves
compensation to better than 0.05%/C.
(1m)
0.2
(kf0/kf1)(Prf0/Prf1) A0
(1m)
Bcorr = ((Tw-To)/(Tw-Tacq))
0.33
n
(kf0/kf1)(Prf0/Prf1) ( f1/ f0)n(f0/f1) B0
Data acquisition I
Data acquisition II
A/D boards convert analogue signals into digital information (numbers)
They have following main characteristics:
Resolution:
- Min. 12 bit (~1-2 mV depending on range)
Sampling rate:
- Min. 100 kHz (allows 3D probes to be sampled with approx. 30 kHz
per sensor)
Simultaneous sampling:
- Recommended (if not sampled simultaneously there will be phase
lag between sensors of 2- and 3D probes)
External triggering:
Recommended (allows sampling to be started by external event)
O f fs e t
A m p lif ie r
G ( E ( t ) - E o ff)
E ( t ) - E o ff
E (1 )
t
t
Data acquisition IV
Sample rate and number of samples
CTA Anemometry
Steps needed to get good measurements: