Cardio

Physiology
Dr. Harley

Housekeeping
Homework Due Date: 16-Oct
Skits

The cardio system transports

materials throughout the body

System
The cardiovascular system consists of the
following components
1. Heart
2. Blood vessels
3. Blood

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

The cardiovascular system is a closed loop.
The heart is a pump that circulates blood
through the system. Arteries take blood
away from the heart, and veins carry
blood back to the heart.

Veins

Capillaries

Arteries

Head and
Brain

Arms

Superior vena cava

Pulmonary
arteries

Lungs

Right
atrium

Inferior vena cava

Pulmonary
veins

Ascending arteries

Aorta
Left atrium
Coronary
arteries
Left ventricle
Heart

Right
ventricle

Abdominal aorta

Trunk

Hepatic
vein
Ascending veins
Venous valve

Hepatic artery
Hepatic portal vein
Digestive
tract

Liver

Renal
veins
Kidneys
Pelvis and
Legs

Renal
arteries

FIGURE QUESTION
A portal system is two capillary beds
joined in series. Identify the two
portal systems shown in this figure.
Descending arteries

Blood Flows Down a Pressure Gradient.

Mean systemic blood pressure

(mm Hg)

100
80
60
40
20
0

Venae cavae

Veins

Venules

Capillaries

Arterioles

Arteries

Aorta

The mean blood pressure of the systemic circulation ranges

from a high of 93 mm Hg (millimeters of mercury) in the aorta
to a low of a few mm Hg in the venae cavae.

Pressure Change
Pressure created by contracting muscles is
transferred to blood.
Driving pressure is created by the ventricles.
If blood vessels dilate, blood pressure decreases.
If blood vessels constrict, blood pressure
increases.
Volume changes affect blood pressure in
cardiovascular system.
o E.x. hydration.

The heart lies in the center of the thorax

Position of
semilunar valves

Sternum

Base of
heart
Apex of
heart

Diaphragm

Position
of AV
valves

Structure of the heart

Pericardium

Diaphragm

Pericardium
function:
The inner serous
layer of the
pericardium secrete
pericardial fluid that
lubricates the surface
of the heart.
The outer fibrous
layer has the
protective and
separative function.

Aorta

Superior
vena cava

Pulmonary artery
Auricle of left atrium

Right
atrium

Right
ventricle

Coronary artery
and vein

Left ventricle

Aorta
Right
pulmonary
arteries
Superior
vena cava
Right atrium

Pulmonary
semilunar valve
Left pulmonary
arteries
Left pulmonary
veins
Left atrium
Cusp of left AV
(bicuspid) valve

Cusp of right
AV (tricuspid)
valve

Right
ventricle
Inferior
vena cava

Chordae tendineae
Papillary muscles
Left ventricle

Descending aorta

Heart Valves
Transverse section

Mitral (left AV), or

bicuspid, valve

Fibrous
skeleton

Tricuspid
(right AV) valve

Pulmonary
semilunar
valve (open)

Tricuspid valve
Location: Between right atrium and right
ventricle.
Structure/Function: Composed of three cusps
that prevent a backflow of blood from the right
ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular
contraction.
Bicuspid valve
Location: Between right ventricle and
pulmonary trunk.
Structure/Function: Composed of two cusps that
prevent a backflow of blood from the left
ventricle to the left atrium during ventricular
contraction.

Pulmonary semilunar valve

Location: Between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk.
Structure/Function: Composed of three half-moon-shaped flaps that prevent a
backflow of blood from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle during
ventricular relaxation.
Aortic semilunar valve
Location: Between left ventricle and ascending aorta
Structure/Function: Composed of three half-moon-shaped flaps that prevent a
backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular contraction.

Excitation coupling in cardiac muscle

This figure shows the cellular events leading to contraction
and relaxation in a cardiac contractile cell.
Ca2

ECF

3 Na

2 K
ATP

ICF

3 Na

RyR

SR
Ca2

L-type
Ca2
channel

Action potential enters

from adjacent cell.

Ca2

Voltage-gated Ca2
channels open. Ca2
enters cell.

NCX
Ca2

Ca2 induces Ca2 release

through ryanodine
receptor-channels (RyR).

Sarcoplasmic
reticulum (SR)

Local release causes

Ca2 spark.

Ca2 stores
ATP

Ca2 sparks

Summed Ca2 sparks

create a Ca2 signal.

T-tubule

Ca2 ions bind to troponin

to initiate contraction.
Ca2 signal

Ca2

Ca2
Actin

Relaxation occurs when

Ca2 unbinds from troponin.
Ca2 is pumped back
into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum for storage.

Contraction

Relaxation

FIGURE QUESTION
Using the numbered steps, compare the events shown to EC
coupling in skeletal and smooth muscle [see Figs. 12.10 and 12.26].

Myosin

Ca2 is exchanged with

Na by the NCX antiporter.
Na gradient is maintained
by the NA-K-ATPase.

Phases of Action Potential

Phase O, Upstroke
Rapid depolarization
Na+ inward current through fast Na+ channels

Phase 1, Initial Repolarization

Inactivation gates close on fast Na+ channels
K+ moves out due to electrochemical gradient (leak
channels)

Phase 2, Plateau
Activation of slow Ca2+ channels
Ca2+ moving in balances K+ moving out

Phase 3, Repolarization
Inactivation of slow Ca2+ channels
Opening of voltage-gated K+ channels

Phase 4, Resting Membrane Potential

Voltage-gated K+ channels close

Recall from previous lecture.

Electrical conduction
Pathway of action potentials in heart:
1. SA node
Where AP is initiated
Self-excitable
Pacemaker

2. Internodal tracts
Conducts impulse from SA node to AV node and
throughout atria

3. AV node
Slow conduction delay
Diminished number of gap junctions

4. Bundle of His
Conducts impulse from atria to ventricles

5. Purkinje system
Conducts impulse to all parts of ventricles
Fast conduction
Increased gap junctions

Recall from previous lecture.

Electrical Conduction
THE CONDUCTING
SYSTEM
OF THE HEART

Atrioventricular (AV) node

o Routes the direction of electrical signals so
the heart contracts from apex to base.
o AV node delay is accomplished by slower
conductional signals through nodal cells.

SA node
Internodal
pathways

Sinoatrial (SA) node

AV node
AV bundle
Bundle
branches

Purkinje
fibers

o Sets the pace of the heartbeat at 70 bpm

o AV node (50 bpm) and Purkinje fibers (2540 bpm) can cat as pacemakers under
some conditions.

The electrocardiogram (ECG) represents the

summed electrical activity of all cells recorded
from the surface of the body.

1 mV

1 sec

Einthovens triangle. ECG electrodes attached to both arms and the leg

form a triangle. Each two-electrode pair constitutes one lead (pronounced

leed), with one positive and one negative electrode. An ECG is recorded
from one lead at a time.
Lead 1, for instance, has the
negative electrode attached to
the right arm and the positive
electrode attached to the left arm.
Right arm

Left arm

Electrodes are
attached to the
skin surface.

II

III

Left leg

5 mm

25 mm 1 sec

An electrocardiogram is divided into waves (P, Q, R, S, T),

segments between the waves (the P-R and S-T segments,
for example), and intervals consisting of a combination of
waves and segments (such as the PR and QT intervals).
This ECG tracing was recorded from lead I.

P wave: atrial depolarization

P-R segment: conduction through AV
node and AV bundle

QRS complex: ventricular

T wave: ventricular repolarization

FIGURE QUESTION
1. If the ECG records at a speed of
25 mm/sec, what is the heart
rate of the person?
(1 little square 1 mm)

Millivolts

depolarization

P-R
segment
P wave Q

PR interval

S-T
segment

T wave

QT interval

QRS complex

CORRELATION BETWEEN AN ECG AND ELECTRICAL EVENTS IN THE HEART

The figure shows the correspondence between electrical
events in the ECG and depolarizing (purple) and
START
repolarizing (peach) regions of the heart.

P wave: atrial
P

depolarization

End
R

P-Q or P-R segment:

conduction through
AV node and AV
bundle

P
QS

P
Atria contract

T wave:

Repolarization

ventricular
repolarization
R

P
QS

ELECTRICAL
EVENTS
OF THE
CARDIAC
CYCLE
P

S-T segment

Q wave
Q

R wave

QS
R

Ventricles contract

S wave

P
QS

Normal and abnormal ECGs. All tracings represent 10-sec recordings.

10 sec
R

P T P T
(1) Normal ECG

(2) Third-degree block

(3) Atrial fibrillation

(4) Ventricular fibrillation

(5) Analyze this abnormal ECG.

R
P

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0NmWOHuy-o8

The heart cycles between contraction

(systole) and relaxation (diastole).
Figure 14.17a
START

Late diastoleboth sets of

chambers are relaxed and
ventricles fill passively.

Isovolumic ventricular
relaxationas ventricles

Atrial systoleatrial contraction

relax; pressure in ventricles

falls, blood flows back into
cusps of semilunar valves
and snaps them closed.

forces a small amount of

additional blood into ventricles.

le
At
r

Ve
n

tole
ys
ls

s to
dia

ia

ri

lar
u
c

S1
S2
At
le
Ven r ial dias to ole
t
t ric
ular sys

Ventricular ejection
as ventricular pressure
rises and exceeds
pressure in the arteries,
the semilunar valves
open and blood is
ejected.

Isovolumic ventricular
contractionfirst phase of

ventricular contraction pushes

AV valves closed but does
not create enough pressure to
open semilunar valves.

Heart Sounds
First heart sound
o Vibrations following closure of the AV valves
o Lub

Second heart sound

o Vibrations created by closing of semilunar valve
o Dup

Auscultation is listening to the heart through the

chest wall with a stethoscope

Pressure-Volume Curve
Stroke volume

120
Left ventricular pressure (mm Hg)

Cardiac cycle order: ABCD

Cycle begins at point A.
A B : Passive filling and atrial contraction

ESV

80

C
ONE
CARDIAC
CYCLE

40

o Atrial blood flows into the ventricle, increasing its

volume.
o The volume of the ventricle increases, but the pressure in
the ventricle goes up very little.
o Filling occurs at the end of ventricular relaxation
(diastole), this volume is called the end diastolic
volume (EDV).

B C : Isovolumic contraction
A
0

100
65
Left ventricular volume (mL)

135

START

Aortic pressure reaches an

average high of 120 mm Hg
during ventricular systole
(systolic pressure), then falls
steadily to a low of 80 mm Hg
during ventricular diastole
(diastolic pressure).

o Ventricular contraction begins.

o With the AV valve and semilunar valve closed, blood in
the ventricle has nowhere to go, so pressure builds.

C D : Ejection of blood into aorta

o Once ventricular pressure exceeds the pressure in the
aorta, the aortic valve opens.
o Pressure continues to increase as the ventricle contracts.
o Ventricular volume decreases as blood is pushed out into
the aorta.

D A : Isovolumic relaxation
o The amount of blood left in the ventricle at the end of
contraction is known as the end systolic volume (ESV).
o The ventricle relaxes and the pressure decreases.
o When the ventricular pressure falls to the point at which
artrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure, the mitral
valve opens and the cycle begins again.

Stroke Volume and

Cardiac Output
Stroke Volume
o Amount of blood pumped by one ventricle during a contraction
o EDV ESV = stroke volume
o Average = 70 mL

Cardiac output
o Volume of blood pumed by one ventricle in a given period of time
o Cardiac Output (CO) = Heart Rate (HR) X Stroke Volume (SV)
o Average CO = 5 L/min

Blood flow and the

control of blood pressure

FUNCTIONAL MODEL OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

This functional model of the
cardiovascular system shows
the heart and blood vessels
as a single closed loop.

The elastic systemic arteries

are a pressure reservoir that
maintains blood flow during
ventricular relaxation.

Aorta
Aortic valve
Left heart

Left ventricle
Mitral valve
Left atrium

The arterioles, shown with

adjustable screws that alter
their diameter, are the site
of variable resistance.

Pulmonary veins
Each side of the
heart functions as
an independent
pump.

Lungs

Capillaries
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary valve
Right ventricle

Right heart

Exchange
between the
blood and cells
takes place
only at the
capillaries.
Venules

Tricuspid valve
Right atrium

Venae cavae

Systemic veins serve as an

expandable volume reservoir.

FIGURE QUESTION
Are pumps in this model
operating in parallel or in
series?

BLOOD VESSEL STRUCTURE

Blood Vessel
Structure

Artery

4.0 mm 1.0 mm

Arteriole 30.0 m 6.0 m

Capillary 8.0 m

0.5 m

Venule

20.0 m 1.0 m

Vein

5.0 mm 0.5 mm

eliu
m
Elas
tic t
issu
e
Smo
o th
mu s
cl e
Fibro
us ti
ssue

End
oth

Mean
wall t
hickn
ess

Mea
n dia

mete
r

The walls of blood vessels vary in diameter and composition. The bars show the
relative proportions of the different tissues. The endothelium and its underlying
elastic tissue together form the tunica intima. (Adapted from A.C. Burton,
Physiol Rev 34: 619642, 1954).

The walls of blood vessels are

composed of:
o
o
o
o

Smooth muscle
Elastic connective tissue
Fibrous connective tissue
Endothelium

Most blood vessels contain

vascular smooth muscle,
arranged in either circular or spiral
layers.
Vasoconstriction narrows the
diameter of the vessel lumen, and
vasodilation widens the vessel
lumen.
Contraction of smooth muscle
depends on the entry of Ca2+
from the ECF through Ca2+
channels.

Arteries and Arterioles carry

blood away from the heart
Collateral
arteries

Vein

Venule
Arteriole
wall is
smooth
muscle.

Precapillary sphincters
can close off capillaries
in response to local signals.
Capillaries

Metarterioles
can act as
bypass
channels.

Small
venule

Precapillary
sphincters
Arteriovenous
bypass

Arteries and arterioles are

characterized by a
divergent pattern of blood
flow.
As major arteries divide into
smaller arteries, the wall
changes becoming less
elastic and more muscular.
Some arterioles branch into
vessels known as
metarterioles.
If the precapillary
sphincters are constricted,
metarteriole blood bypasses
the capillaries and goes
directly to the venous
circulation.

Exchange takes place in

the capillaries
Capillaries are the smallest vessels
in the cardiovascular system.
Absence of vascular smooth muscle
and elastic tissue reinforcement in
capillaries, facilitates exchange.
Capillaries walls consist of a flat
layer of endothelium, one cell thick,
supported on the basal lamina.
Pericytes are closely associated
with many capillaries
o The more pericytes the less leaky the capillary
endothelium.
o Can differentiate into endothelial cells and smooth
muscle.

Blood flow converges in the Venules and Veins

Valves in the veins
prevent backflow
of blood.

Valve
closed

When the skeletal muscles compress

the veins, they force blood toward the
heart (the skeletal muscle pump).
Valve
opened

Blood flows from capillaries

into venules.
Venules have a
convergent pattern of
flow.
From venules blood flows
into veins that become
larger in diameter as they
travel toward the heart, and
smooth muscle and
connective tissue appear.
Some veins have internal
one-way valves to help
with blood flow.
Veins are more numerous
than arteries and have a
larger diameter.
Veins hold more than half
the volume of blood in the
circulatory system, making
them the volume
reservoir.

Angiogenesis
Development of new blood vessels.
o In kids, blood vessel growth is necessary for normal development.
o In adults, blood vessels grow to aid in wound healing, and uterine lining
after menstrual cycle.
o Also occurs with endurance exercise training, enhancing blood flow to
the heart muscle and sekeltal muscle.

Controlled by cytokines
o Promote angiogenesis: Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) and
Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF).
o Inhibit angiogenesis: Angiostatin and Endostatin

Ventricular contraction. Contraction of the ventricles pushes

blood into the elastic arteries, causing them to stretch.

Aorta and
arteries

Aorta and arteries

expand and store
pressure in elastic
walls.

Semilunar valve
opens. Blood ejected
from ventricles flows
into the arteries.

Ventricle

Ventricle
contracts.

Blood
Pressure
Blood pressure is
highest in arteries
and lowest in
veins.

Blood Pressure
Pulse pressure
o A measure of the strength of the pressure wave
o Pulse pressure = Systolic Pressure Diastolic Pressure
Example: Pulse Pressure = 120 mm Hg 80 mm Hg = 40 mm Hg

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)

o Blood pressure reflects the driving pressure created by the pumping
action of the heart.
o MAP represents this driving pressure.
o MAP = Diastolic Pressure + 1/3(Systolic Pressure diastolic Pressure)
Example: MAP = 80 mm Hg + 1/3(120 mm Hg 80 mm Hg) = 93.3
mm Hg

SPHYGMOMANOMETRY
Arterial blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer (an inflatable cuff plus a pressure gauge)
and a stethoscope. The inflation pressure shown is for a person whose blood pressure is 120/80.
Cuff pressure
120 mm Hg

When the cuff is inflated so that

it stops arterial blood flow, no
sound can be heard through a
stethoscope placed over the
brachial artery distal to the cuff.

Cuff pressure
between 80 and
120 mm Hg

Korotkoff sounds are created by

pulsatile blood flow through the
compressed artery.

Cuff pressure
80 mm Hg

Blood flow is silent when the

artery is no longer compressed.

Inflatable
cuff
Pressure
gauge

Stethoscope

Factors that influence mean arterial pressure

MEAN ARTERIAL
BLOOD PRESSURE
is determined by

Effectiveness of the heart

as a pump (cardiac output)

Blood volume

determined by

Fluid
intake

Fluid
loss
may be

Passive

Regulated
at kidneys

determined by

Heart
rate

Stroke
volume

Resistance of the
system to blood flow

Relative distribution of
blood between arterial and
venous blood vessels

determined by

determined by

Diameter of
the arterioles

Diameter
of the veins

COMPENSATION FOR INCREASED BLOOD VOLUME

Blood pressure control includes rapid responses from the
cardiovascular system and slower responses by the kidneys.

Blood
volume

KEY
Stimulus

leads to
Blood
pressure

Integrating center
Tissue response
Systemic response

triggers

Slow response

Fast response
Compensation
by
cardiovascular
system

Vasodilation

Compensation
by kidneys

Excretion of fluid in urine

blood volume

Cardiac output

Blood
pressure
to normal

Ted Talk
Run for your life:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6U728AZnV0

Blood

Functions of Blood
Transport
o Blood transports oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues and carbon dioxide and waste
materials from the tissues to the organs of excretion.
o It also transports hormones from endocrine glands to their target tissues.

Acid-base regulation
o Blood functions to control respiratory acidosis (low pH) or alkalosis (high pH) through the
bicarbonate buffer system.
o High levels of hydrogen ions combine with bicarbonate to form carbonic acid which dissociates
immediately to form carbon dioxide and water; as carbone dioxide is exhaled, blood becomes
less acidic, and pH levels stabilize.

Thermoregulation
o Under conditions of hyperthermia, the blood carries excess heat to the body surface for
temperature regulation.

Immunity
o Leukocytes are transported in the blood to sites of injury or invasion by disease-causing agents.

Hemostasis
o Thrombocytes (platelets) and clotting proteins minimize blood loss when a blood vessel is
damaged.

Water

Amino acids

Albumins

Proteins

Globulins

Glucose

Fibrinogen

Ions

BLOOD

is
composed
of

Plasma

Organic
molecules

such as

Trace elements
and vitamins

Lipids

Nitrogenous
waste

CO2
Gases

such as
O2

Plasma
Plasma is the fluid matrix of the blood, within
which cellular elements are suspended.
Breakdown:
o Water 92%
o Proteins 7%
o All the rest 1%

Plasma is identical to interstitial fluid except for

the presence of plasma proteins.

 Albumins are the most prevalent ~60%

The liver makes most plasma proteins and secretes
them into the blood.
The presence of proteins in plasma makes the osmotic
pressure of the blood higher than interstitial fluid. Thus
the osmotic gradient tends to pull water from the
interstitial fluid into the capillaries.

Figure 16.1b (2 of 2)

Lymphocytes

Red blood
cells

Monocytes

BLOOD

is
composed
of

Cellular
elements

White
blood cells

include

Neutrophils
Platelets

Eosinophils

0
5
10

Basophils

15

Cellular elements
Three main elements are found in blood
o Red blood cells (RBCs), also called erythrocytes
Transports oxygen from lungs to tissues
Exports carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs
o White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes
Bodys immune responses
Defending the body against foreign invaders, such as parasites, bacteria,
and viruses.
Five types of mature white blood cells:
1. Lymphocytes
2. Monocytes
3. Neutrophils
4. Eosinophils
5. Basophils
o Platelets, also called thrombocytes
Coagulation, the process by which blood clots prevent blood loss in
damaged vessels.

Blood Cell Production

All blood cells stem from a single precursor cell
type known as the pluripotent hematopoietic
stem cell, which is found primarily in bone
marrow.
As the stem cells specialize they narrow their
possible fates.
First they become uncommitted stem cells,
then progenitor stem cells that are committed
to developing into one or two cell types.
Progenitor stem cells differentiate into red blood
cells, lymphocytes, and other white blood cells.

Pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell

BONE MARROW

Uncommitted
stem cells

Committed
progenitor cells

Erythroblast
Megakaryocyte

Lymphocyte
stem cells

Blood cells are produced

in the bone marrow
Hematopoiesis = the synthesis of blood cells.
In adults the only areas producing blood cells are
the pelvis, spine, ribs, cranium and proximal ends
of long bones.
Active bone marrow is red because it contains
hemoglobin, the oxygen-binding protein of red
blood cells.
Inactive bone marrow is yellow because of an
abundance of adipocytes (fat cells).
Cell differentiation
o 25% become red blood cells
o 75% become white blood cells

Hematopoiesis is
controlled by cytokines
Cytokines are peptides or proteins released from
one cell that affect the growth or activity of
another cell.
Leukopoiesis: production of white blood cells
Erythropoiesis: production of red blood cells
o Hematocrit: ratio of red blood cells to plasma, expressed as a
percentage.

Figure 16.3
THE BLOOD COUNT
This table lists the normal ranges of values.
MALES

FEMALES

4054%

3747%

1417

1216

4.56.5 103

3.95.6 103

411 103

411 103

Neutrophils

5070%

5070%

Eosinophils

14%

14%

Basophils

<1%

<1%

Lymphocytes

2040%

2040%

Monocytes

28%

28%

150450 103

150450 103

Hematocrit
Hematocrit is the percentage of total blood volume
that is occupied by packed (centrifuged) red blood cells.

Hemoglobin (g Hb/dL* whole blood)

58%
plasma
volume

The hemoglobin value reflects the oxygen-carrying

capacity of red blood cells. (*1 deciliter (dL) 100 mL)

Red cell count (cells/L)

A machine counts erythrocytes as they stream
through a beam of light.

Total white count (cells/L)

100%

A total white cell count includes all types of

leukocytes but does not distinguish between them.

<1%
white
cells

Differential white cell count

The differential white cell count presents estimates of
the relative proportions of the five types of leukocytes
in a thin blood smear stained with biological dyes.

42%
packed
red cell
volume

Platelets (per L)
Platelet count is suggestive of the bloods ability
to clot.

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 1

Stem cell

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Reticular cell

Stem cell

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 2

Red

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

n
Stem cell

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Reticular cell

Stem cell

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 3

Red

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

n
Stem cell

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Reticular cell

Stem cell

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 4

Red

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Reticular cell

Stem cell

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 5

Red

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Reticular cell

Stem cell

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Mature blood cells

squeeze through the
endothelium to
reach the circulation.

Slide 6

Red

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Reticular cell

Stem cell

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 7

Mature blood cells

squeeze through the
endothelium to
reach the circulation.

Red

Stem cell

at
ur
at
io
n
m
Ne
ut r
op
hil

Reticular cell

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 8

Mature blood cells

squeeze through the
endothelium to
reach the circulation.

Red

Stem cell

at
ur
at
io
n
m
Ne
ut r
op
hil

Reticular cell

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 9

Mature blood cells

squeeze through the
endothelium to
reach the circulation.

Red

Stem cell

at
ur
at
io
n
m
Ne
ut r
op
hil

Reticular cell

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 10

Mature blood cells

squeeze through the
endothelium to
reach the circulation.

Red

Stem cell

at
ur
at
io
n
m
Ne
ut r
op
hil

Reticular cell

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Figure 16.4c FOCUS ON Bone Marrow

Slide 11

Mature blood cells

squeeze through the
endothelium to
reach the circulation.

Red

io
rat
u
t
a
ell m
c
d
bloo

n
Stem cell

Reticulocyte
expelling
nucleus

Platelets

Stem cell

Reticular cell

Ne
ut r
op
hil

Fragments of
megakaryocyte
break off to become
platelets.

at
ur
at
io
n

Mature
neutrophil

Reticular
fiber

Venous sinus

Macrophage
Monocyte

The stroma is composed

of fibroblast-like reticular
cells, collagenous fibers,
and extracellular matrix.

2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lymphocyte

Red Blood Cells

Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) shows biconcave disk shape of RBCs.

The cytoskeleton creates the

unique shape of RBCs.

Cytoskeleton
filament
Cross section of RBC

Attachment
protein
Actin

Biconcave shape
Membrane is held in place by a complex cytoskeleton composed
of filaments linked to transmembrane attachment proteins.
Red blood cells are remarkably flexible.
Can change shape in response to osmotic changes in the blood.

Erythrocytes placed in a hypertonic medium

shrink, but the rigid cytoskeleton remains
intact, creating a spiky surface. These cells
are said to be crenated {crenatus, a notch}.

Erythrocytes placed in a hypotonic

medium swell and lose their
characteristic biconcave disk shape.

Abnormal hemoglobin in sickle cell

disease can cause RBCs to change shape.

Sickled
RBC

The morphology of red blood cells can provide

clues to the presence of disease.
Red blood cells can be abnormally small, in irondeficiency anemia.
Mean red cell volume (MCV) = the size of red
blood cells

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin synthesis requires iron

Hemoglobin is the main component of red blood cells, is
best known for its role in oxygen transport.
The four heme groups in a hemoglobin are identical. Each
consists of: carbon-hydrogen-nitrogen porphyrin ring with
an iron (Fe) atom in the center.
About 70% of the bodies iron is found in the heme groups.

Figure 16.6c

Hemoglobin and iron

Iron (Fe) ingested

from the diet.

Transferrin protein
transports Fe in
plasma.
Fe absorbed
by active
transport.

Fetransferrin

Bone
Marrow

Fe

Bone marrow uses Fe to make

hemoglobin (Hb) as part of RBC synthesis.
Heme

Hb

RBC synthesis

Spleen
Intestine

Plasma

Hb

Liver
Liver stores
excess Fe
as ferritin.

Bile

Bilirubin metabolites
in feces

Liver metabolizes
bilirubin and
excretes it in bile.

Spleen destroys
old RBCs and
converts Hb to
bilirubin

RBCs live about

120 days in the
blood.

Hb
Bilirubin

Bilirubin and metabolites

are excreted in urine and
feces.

Kidney

Bilirubin metabolites
in urine

RBC disorders decrease

oxygen transport
If hemoglobin content is too
low a condition known as
anemia the blood cannot
transport enough oxygen to
the tissues.
Hemachromatosis is the
most common form of iron
overload disease.

Platelets and Coagulation

Platelets are cell fragments produced in the bone
marrow from huge cells called megakaryocytes.
Typical life span of a platelet is about 10 days.
Platelets are always present in the blood, but they
are not active unless damage occurs to the walls
of the circulatory system.

Figure 16.7
MEGAKARYOCYTES AND PLATELETS
Megakaryocytes are giant cells with
multiple copies of DNA in the nucleus.

The edges of the megakaryocyte

break off to form cell fragments
called platelets.
Platelets

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Inactive platelets are small disk-like cell fragments.

Red blood cell

Activated platelets (shown enlarged) develop a spiky

outer surface and adhere to each other.

RBC

Inactive platelet

Activated
platelet

Hemostasis prevents blood

loss from damaged vessels
Hemostasis is the process of keeping blood
within a damaged blood vessel.
Hemostasis has three major steps:
1. Vasoconstriction
Temporarily decreases blood flow and pressure within the vessel.
2. Temporary blockage of a break by a platelet plug
Mechanical blockage of the hole by a loose platelet plug.
Platelets adhere or stick to exposed collagen in the damaged area.
Platelets activate to release factors that attract more platelets.
3. Coagulation, the formation of a clot that seals the hole until tissues are
repaired.
Exposed collagen and tissue factor initiate coagulation.
The formation of a fibrin protein mesh that stabilizes the platelet
plug to form a clot.
Fibrin is the end product of the coagulation cascade.

Figure 16.8
HEMOSTASIS AND TISSUE REPAIR
Damage to
wall of
blood vessel

Vasoconstriction

Collagen
exposed

Tissue factor
exposed

Platelets
adhere and
release
platelet
factors

Coagulation
cascade
(Fig. 16.10)

Thrombin
formation

Platelets aggregate
into loose platelet
plug

Temporary
hemostasis

Clot: reinforced
platelet plug

Cell growth and

tissue repair

Fibrin slowly
dissolved by
plasmin

Clot dissolves

Intact blood
vessel wall

Converts
fibrinogen
to fibrin

PLATELET PLUG FORMATION

Platelets will not adhere to intact endothelium. Damage triggers platelet plug formation
where collagen has been exposed.
Exposed collagen binds
and activates platelets.
Lumen of
blood vessel

Intact endothelium
releases prostacyclin
and nitric oxide (NO).

Smooth
muscle cells

Release of platelet factors

Prevents
platelet
adhesion

Factors attract more platelets.

Platelets aggregate into

platelet plug.

Collagen
subendothelial
layer

Exposed collagen
in damaged blood
vessel wall

ECF

Figure 16.11b (2 of 2)

Red blood cells are trapped in the fibrin mesh of a clot.

Videos
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=--bZUeb83uU
Good series to watch:
o
o
o
o

Once upon a time. Life The tiny platelets

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vEmsaXA-go0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JvOH5skxqoA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M_YpLaWdBpk

Stroke of insight
o http://www.ted.com/talks/jill_bolte_taylor_s_powerful_stroke_of_insight