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Tiw PPT 06 Fdtools
Tiw PPT 06 Fdtools
An Educational Program to
Improve the Level of Teaching
Risk-Informed, Performancebased Fire Protection Engineering
Assessment Methods
1
RESOURCES PROVIDED
All Participants will be given at the end of the
course, a CD-ROM containing:
Handouts and visuals used in presentations
Reference materials, real-world example FHAs,
and the latest version of FDTs
Fire Dynamics Tools (FDT s) Quantitative Fire
Hazard Analysis Methods for the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission Fire Protection Inspection
Program, (NUREG-1805.1, June 2005).
Verification and Validation of Selected Fire Models
for Nuclear Power Plant Applications, (NUREG1824/EPRI 1011999, May 2007)
2
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
(NRC) has developed quantitative methods,
known as the Fire Dynamics Tools (FDTs) to
assist in performing Fire Hazard Analyses
(FHAs) known as NUREG 1805.
This methodology has been implemented in
Exceltm spreadsheets
The goal of this effort is to provide first-order
calculations of potential postulated scenarios at
nuclear power plants.
4
OBJECTIVES
Provide basic calculation methodology for use in
assessing potential fire hazards in NRC-licensed
nuclear power plants (NPPs).
The methodology uses simplified fire hazard
analysis (FHA) techniques for credible fire
scenarios.
The FDTs spreadsheets are designed to
incorporated empirical correlations and
mathematical calculations based upon fire
dynamics principles.
5
REGULATORY BACKGROUND
General Requirements in
Appendix R (10 CFR 50) states
a fire protection program shall:
Prevent fires from starting
Rapidly detect, control, and extinguish
fires that do occur
Protect structures, systems, and
components
6
REGULATORY OBJECTIVES
FHAs for Nuclear Power Plants should:
Consider the potential for transient fire
hazards
Determine the consequences of fire in any
location in the plant
Pay attention to safe reactor shutdown while
minimizing the chances for radioactive
material releases
Specify measures for fire detection,
suppression, containment, and prevention.
7
NPP FIRE
SCENARIOS
(NUREG 1824)
10
Multi-Level
Building
Containment
Building
Battery Room
Computer or Relay
Room
Outdoors
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
FHAS USING
FIRE MODELS
20
21
22
24
25
28
29
30
31
32
33
35
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
Tier B Plume Development
B1 (09) Center line temperature of
a fire plume
B2 (04) Flame height calculations
(wall, line, corner)
B3 (05) Estimate radiant heat flux to
target fuel
B4 (06) Ignition temperature of a
target fuel
37
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
Tier C Compartment Factors
C1 (02) Prediction of hot gas layer temperature
C2 (10, 11, 12) Estimating detector/sprinkler
response times
C3 (13) Predicting compartment flashover
C4 (14, 15) Predicting pressure rise in closed
compartment, explosion pressure
C5 (16) Predicting rate of hydrogen gas generation
C 6 (17) Calculating fire resistance of structural
members
38
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
Tier D Tenability (Hazard Criteria)
D1 (18) Estimating visibility through smoke
D2 Heat release rate
D3 Radiant heat exposure (2.5 kW/m2)
D4 Layer temperature (100oC)
D5 Layer smoke density (0.2/m)
D6 Layer Carbon Monoxide (3,000 ppm)
D7 Layer Oxygen (10 percent or less)
39
RECENT STUDIES
Comparison of Three
Fire Models in the
Simulation of
Accidental Fires,G.
Rein, A. Bar-Ilan, and
A.C. Fernandez-Pello,
University of California
at Berkeley; and N.
Alvares, Fire Sciences
Applications, San
Carlos, California, 2004.
NUREG
1824
Analysis
41
42
FIRE DYNAMICS
TOOLS
(TIER A)
43
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING BURNING DURATION OF
SOLID COMBUSTIBLES
Introduce factors that influence the fire
duration of solid combustibles.
Explain how to estimate fire durations for
various solid combustibles.
Approximate first order estimates of
burning durations.
46
BURNING DURATION
The burning duration is the time between
ignition and the decay phase of a fire.
The burning duration (fire) for a given
compartment size and ventilation condition is
driven by the fuel load.
Given the mass of material being burned per
second and the amount of material available to
be consumed, it is possible to calculate a first
order estimate for the total burning duration of
a fuel.
47
BURNING DURATION
The burning duration of solid combustibles can
be estimated if the HRR and total energy
contained in the fuel are known.
tsolid
E m fuel H c
Q& Q&Afuel
Afuel LW
48
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) Combustion is incomplete (leaving
some residual fuel) and takes place
entirely within the confines of the
compartment.
(2) Virtually all of the potential energy in
the fuel is released in the involved
compartment.
49
INPUT NEEDED
50
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (8.9-1)
A horizontal power cable fails as a result of
self-initiated fire and burn in a compartment.
Compute the burning duration of a cable tray
with an exposed surface area of 1 ft filled with
10 lb of non-IEEE-383-qualified PE/PVC
cables. The heat release per unit floor area of
PE/PVC is 589 kW/m , and the heat of
combustion is 24,000 kJ/kg.
2
51
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING THE FULL-SCALE HEAT
RELEASE RATE OF A CABLE TRAY FIRE
BEHAVIOR IN FIRES
Electrical cables constitute a serious fire hazard for
NPPs because the combustible polymeric insulation
and jacket material are present in large quantities. This
large fuel load can cause NPP fires to burn for
extended periods
The behavior of cables in a fire depends on:
(1)
their constituent materials and construction, (2) their
location, and (3) installation geometry.
Cable tray fires scenarios include (1) fire within a cable
tray and (2) as exposure fire the subsequently ignites
the cable tray.
56
57
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) This correlation is based on the data
obtained from flaming fire of cable samples.
(2) A complex cable tray configuration may be
present in many NPPs. For very complex cable
tray arrays, the above correlation would give a
less accurate approximation for the HRR.
(3) The equation should be used to calculate the
HRR for any type of cable.
58
INPUT NEEDED
59
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (7.12-1)
A 32-gallon trash can exposure fire source is
located 2 m (6.5 ft) beneath a horizontal cable tray.
It is assumed that the trash fire ignites an area of
approximately 2 m (21 ft ) of the cable tray.
The cables in the tray are IEEE-383 unqualified and
made of PE/PVC insulation material.
Compute the full-scale HRR of the PE/PVC cable
insulation. The bench-scale HRR of PE/PVC is 589
kW/m
2
60
BURNING CHARACTERISTICS OF
LIQUID POOL FIRE, HEAT
RELEASE RATE, BURNING
DURATION, AND FLAME HEIGHT
(NUREG 1805 Chap 3)
03_HRR_Flame_Height_Burning_Duratio
n_Calculations.xls
61
OBJECTIVES
PREDICTING BURNING CHARACTERISTICS
OF LIQUID POOL FIRE, HEAT RELEASE RATE,
BURNING DURATION, AND FLAME HEIGHT
Identify the predominant flammable material in a nuclear
power plant (NPP).
Introduce the methods and factors that influence
estimates of the heat release and burning rate of pool
fires.
Explain how to analyze the burning duration of object and
pool fires.
62
k D
&
&
Q m H c ,eff A f 1 e
63
m&
v
64
Thomas
65
NON-CIRCULAR POOLS
Calculating the effective diameter
4 Af
66
INPUT NEEDED
Steps to estimate the burning duration of a pool
fire:
(1) Determine the regression rate of the pool fire.
(2) Calculate the equivalent diameter of the pool fire.
(3) Calculate the burning duration of the pool fire.
Input needed:
(1) fuel spill volume
(2) fuel spill area or dike area
(3) fuel type
67
INPUT NEEDED
Steps to estimate the flame height of a
pool fire:
(1) Determine the HRR of the pool fire.
(2) Calculate the equivalent diameter of the
pool fire.
(3) Determine the height of the pool fire flame.
Input needed:
(1) fuel spill volume
(2) fuel spill area or dike area
(3) fuel type
68
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The flame height correlation described in this
chapter was developed for horizontal pool fire sources
in the center or away from the center of the
compartment.
(2) The size of the fire (flame height) depends on the
diameter of the fuel and the HRR attributable to the
combustion.
(3) This correlation method is developed for twodimensional sources (primarily pool fires) assumes
that the pool is circular or nearly circular.
(4) There is no fire growth period. (the pool fire
instantaneously reaches its maximum HRR.)
69
PROBLEM SET
Lube Oil Spill
Problem 3.10-1
(p. 3-22)
70
FIRE DYNAMICS
TOOLS
(TIER B)
71
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
Tier B Plume Development
B1 (09) Center line temperature of a
fire plume
B2 (04) Flame height calculations
(wall, line, corner)
B3 (05) Estimate radiant heat flux to
target fuel
B4 (06) Ignition temperature of a
target fuel
72
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING THE CENTERLINE
TEMPERATURE OF A BUOYANT FIRE
PLUME
FIRE PLUMES
A fire plume is a buoyantly rising column of hot
combustion products, along with unburned fuel
vapor and mixed with air.
The turbulent column of hot gases rises because
of buoyancy differences. This causes rapid mixing
of the hot gases with the cooler surrounding air,
which decreases its velocity, widens the column,
and reduces its temperature.
Temperature, velocity, and mass flow rates of the
fire plume above the flame are critical to the many
technical aspects of fire growth in a compartment.
75
76
CENTERLINE TEMPERATURE
77
VIRTUAL ORIGIN
78
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) All heat energy is released at a point.
(2) The correlation was developed for two-dimensional
area sources.
(3) If the surrounding air is at an elevated temperature,
the temperature difference between the plume and the
surrounding environment is small. The thermal plume
cools less effectively, which will underestimate the
temperature.
(4) The thermal plume equation is not valid when the
momentum forces in a plume are more significant than
the buoyant forces, as in a jet fire.
79
INPUT NEEDED
80
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (9.11-1)
A steel beam is located 25 ft above the floor.
Calculate the temperature of the beam
exposed from a 34.5 ft lube oil pool fire.
Assume the HRR of the fire is 5,000 kW.
2
Solution
81
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING WALL FIRE FLAME
HEIGHT, LINE FIRE FLAME HEIGHT
AGAINST THE WALL, AND CORNER
FIRE FLAME HEIGHT
86
WALL FIRE
Wall Fire Flame
Height Calculation
2
87
LINE FIRE
Line Fire Flame
Height Calculation
2
88
CORNER FIRE
Corner Fire Flame
Height Calculation
3
89
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) This method includes correlations for flame
height for liquid fire.
(2) The size of the fire (flame height) depends
on the length of the fire.
(3) This correlation is developed for twodimensional sources. The turbulent diffusion
flames produced by fires burning at or near a
wall configuration of a compartment affect the
spread of the fire.
(4) Air is entrained only from one side during
the combustion process.
90
INPUT NEEDED
91
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (4.9-1)
A pool fire scenario arises from a breach (leak or
rupture) in an oil-filled transformer. This event allows
the fuel contents of the transformer to spill 2 gallons
along a wall with an area of 9 ft2.
A cable tray is located 8 ft above the fire. Calculate the
wall flame height of the fire and determine whether the
flame will impinge upon the cable tray.
Solution
(1) Calculate the wall flame height.
(2) Determine whether the flame will impinge upon the
cable tray.
92
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING RADIANT HEAT FLUX
FROM A FIRE TO A TARGET FUEL
Introduce the three modes of heat transfer.
Explain how to calculate the heat flux from a
flame to a target outside the flame.
Discuss point source radiation models and
solid flame radiation models.
94
95
96
r Q&
q&
2
4 R
97
98
q& E F1 2
E T
99
HYDROCARBON FIREBALL
Variables impacting a fireballs thermal
radiation hazard: (1) the mass of fuel involved,
(2) the fireballs diameter, (3) duration, and (4)
thermal emissive power.
Radiation received by an object relatively
distant from the fireball can be calculated by:
0.771
F
828 m
q&r
R2
100
HYDROCARBON FIREBALL
Distance from center of fireball to target
Fireball flame height
Fireball volume
mF
VF
101
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The pool fires are circular or nearly circular.
(2) Except near the base of pool fires, radiation to the
surroundings can be approximated as being isotropic
or emanating from a point source.
(3) The point source model overestimates the intensity
of thermal radiation at the observers (target) locations
close to the fire.
(4) A theoretical analysis of radiation from small pool
fire by Modak (1977) indicated that the point source
model is within 5-percent the correct incident heat flux
when L/D >2.5.
102
103
INPUT NEEDED
104
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (5.11-1)
A pool fire scenario arises from a breach (leak or
rupture) in a transformer where the fuel contents spills
and spreads over the compartment floor. The
compartment is large and has a high ceiling. A pool
fire ensues with a spill area of 9.0 ft on the concrete
floor.
Calculate the flame radiant heat flux to a target
(cabinet) at ground level with no wind using: a) point
source radiation model and b) solid flame radiation
model. The distance between the fire source and the
target edge is assumed to be 10 ft.
2
105
PROBLEM SET
106
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING THE IGNITION TIME OF A
TARGET FUEL EXPOSED TO A
CONSTANT RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX
Explain the importance of the location of the
ignition source and fuels.
Discuss how to calculate ignition time.
Define relevant terms, including ignition
temperature, flash point, piloted ignition, and
non-piloted ignition.
108
IGNITION
For ignition, the solid fuel must be heated sufficiently to
vaporize and form a flammable pre-mixed system. An
ignition source (spark or small flame) must also be
present, for piloted ignition.
A gas mixture must be heated sufficiently to cause
auto-ignition.
The critical surface temperature at which these
ignitions occur is called the ignition temperature.
Piloted ignition requires a much lower temperature
than automatic (or spontaneous) ignition.
109
Method of Tewarson
110
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) For ignition to occur, a solid material must be
heated sufficiently to vaporize and form a flammable
mixture.
(2) Ignition occurs when the surface reaches a critical
temperature defined as the ignition temperature.
(3) A heat source must be present to ignite the solid.
(4) The solid is assumed to be infinitely thick.
(5) The methods are all derived through the solid with
radiant heating on the surface.
111
INPUT NEEDED
112
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (6.11-1)
Calculate the ignition time for a PVC/PE
power cable, assuming that a 6.5-ft (2-m)
diameter pool fire produces a 25-kW/m heat
flux.
2
113
FIRE DYNAMICS
TOOLS
(TIER C)
114
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
Tier C Compartment Factors
C1 (02) Prediction of hot gas layer temperature
C2 (10, 11, 12) Estimating detector/sprinkler
response times
C3 (13) Predicting compartment flashover
C4 (14, 15) Predicting pressure rise in closed
compartment, explosion pressure
C5 (16) Predicting rate of hydrogen gas generation
C 6 (17) Calculating fire resistance of structural
members
115
OBJECTIVES
PREDICTING HOT GAS LAYER
TEMPERATURE AND SMOKE LAYER
HEIGHT IN A ROOM FIRE WITH NATURAL
AND FORCED VENTILATION
Explain the different stages of a compartment fire
Identify and explain the types of forced and natural
ventilation systems
Describe how to calculate the hot gas layer
temperature and smoke layer height for a fire in a
compartment with both natural and forced ventilation
systems
117
118
119
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
120
Natural Ventilation:
(Closed
Compartment)
Method of Beyler
Forced Ventilation:
Method of Deal
and Beyler
122
123
Other References:
SFPE Handbook
NIST Fire on the
Web (fire.nist.gov)
124
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
The following assumptions and
limitations apply to all forced and
natural convection situations:
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
The following assumptions and
limitations apply only to natural
convection situations:
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
The following assumptions and
limitations apply only to forced
convection situations:
127
INPUT NEEDED
The user must obtain the following values before attempting a
calculation using the natural or forced ventilation spreadsheets:
PROBLEM SET
Natural Ventilation
Problem 2.16.1-1
(p. 2-29)
Forced Ventilation
Problem 2.16.2-1
(p.2-55)
129
ESTIMATING SPRINKLER
RESPONSE TIME
(NUREG 1805 -Chap 10)
10_Detector_Activation_Time.xls
130
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING SPRINKLER RESPONSE
TIME
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of
sprinklers.
Identify the four basic types of sprinkler
systems.
Describe the purpose of sprinklers.
Explain how sprinklers function.
131
INTRODUCTION
Sprinklers are designed to control a fire by
producing a cooling effect when the water from
a sprinkler vaporizes to cool the burning
materials below their ignition temperature.
Many times the sprinkler system extinguishes
the fire because the surrounding materials can
no longer heat to their ignition temperature.
If the first sprinkler cannot control the fire, a
second sprinkler is activated which provides
additional cooling. This process continues until
the fire is controlled.
132
133
SPRINKLER ACTIVATION
134
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The method assumes the ceiling is unconfined, unobstructed,
smooth, flat, and horizontal.
(2) The plume ceiling jet correlations of temperature and velocity
assume that the fire source is located away from walls and corners.
(3) The correlations for estimating the maximum ceiling jet
temperature and velocity were developed for steady-state fires and
plumes under unconfined ceilings
(4) Plume ceiling jet correlations are valid for unconfined ceilings.
(5) Calculations determining time to operation only consider the
convective heating of sensing elements by the hot fire gases.
(6) This method does not apply to predict response time of sprinklers
installed on heat collectors1 far below the ceiling (in mid air).
135
INPUT NEEDED
(1) heat release rate of the fire
(2) activation temperature of the sprinkler
(3) distance from top of fuel package to
the ceiling
(4) radial distance from the plume
centerline to the sprinkler
(5) ambient air temperature
(6) sprinkler type
136
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (10.10-1)
A fire with = 1,000 kW occurs in a space that is protected with
sprinklers. Sprinklers are rated at 165 F (74 C) [standard
response link with RTI = 130 (m-sec) ] and located 9.8 ft (3 m)
on center. The ceiling is 9.8 ft (3.0 m) above the fire. The
ambient temperature is 77 F.
Would the sprinklers activate, and if so how long would it take
for them to activate?
Solution
(1) Determine if the sprinklers will be activated for the fire
scenario.
(2) If the sprinkles are activated, how long would it take for
them to activate?
137
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING SMOKE DETECTOR
RESPONSE TIME
Introduce the critical factors that influence
smoke detector performance.
Identify the various types of smoke detectors.
Describe how to estimate the response time of
a smoke detector.
139
SMOKE DETECTION
Detection is critical to fire safety in NPPs since a
potential fire hazard may jeopardize safe plant
shutdown. Consequently, safety-related systems must
be protected before redundant safety related systems
become damaged by a fire.
Two essential factors influencing the performance of
smoke detectors are (1) the particle size of the smoke
and (2) the fire-induced air velocities.
Typically, a smoke detector will detect most fires more
rapidly than a heat detector.
140
TIME/DAMAGE
141
SMOKE DETECTORS
Types
Calculations Methods
Method of Albert
Method of Mowrer
Method of Milke
142
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The fire is steady state.
(2) The forced ventilation system is off. As
ventilation is increased, detector response times
increase.
(3) Both flaming and non-flaming fire sources can
be used.
(4) Caution should be exercised with this method
when the overhead area is highly obstructed.
(5) The detectors are located at or very near to
ceiling.
143
INPUT NEEDED
144
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (11.12-1)
Estimate the response time of a smoke detector that
is located 10 ft radially from the centerline of a 1,000kW pool fire in a 13-ft-tall compartment.
Solution
(1) Calculate the wall flame height.
(2) Determine whether the flame will impinge upon
the cable tray.
145
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING HEAT DETECTOR
RESPONSE TIME
Explain where heat detectors are located.
Identify the various types of heat detectors
and how they work.
Describe how to calculate the activation time
of a heat detector.
147
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Heat detectors are one of the oldest forms of
automatic fire detection devices, and they
typically have the lowest false alarm rate of all
automatic fire detection devices.
Heat detectors are generally located on or near
the ceiling, where they can respond to the
convected thermal energy of a fire.
They may be used in combination with smoke
detectors, since smoke detectors usually activate
before the flames and heat would are sufficient to
alarm the heat detector.
148
TYPES OF DETECTORS
Fixed-temperature
Fusible-element
Continuous Link
Bimetallic
Rate compensation
Rate-of-rise
Pneumatic heat detectors
Line-type detectors
Combination Heat detectors
Electronic spot-type thermal
149
150
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) Plume ceiling jet correlations of temperature and
velocity assume that the fire source is located away from
walls and corners.
(2) Correlations for estimating the maximum ceiling jet
temperature and velocity were developed for steady-state
fires and plumes under unconfined ceiling
(3) The plume ceiling jet correlations are valid for
unconfined flat ceilings.
(4) The correlations for estimating the maximum ceiling
jet temperature and velocity were developed for steadystate fires and plumes under unconfined ceiling.
(5) The plume ceiling jet correlations are valid for
unconfined ceilings.
151
INPUT NEEDED
152
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (4.9-1)
A 34.5-ft (3.20-m ) lube oil pool fire with = 5,750 kW
occurs in a space protected with fixed temperature
heat detectors. Calculate the activation time for the
fixed-temperature heat detectors, using 10-ft (3.05m) spacing, in an area with a ceiling height of 10 ft
(3.05 m).
The detector activation temperature is 128 F (53
C), the radial distance to the detector is 4 ft (1.22
m), and the ambient temperature is 77 F (25 C).
153
PREDICTING COMPARTMENT
FLASHOVER
(NUREG 1805 -Chap 13)
13_Compartment_Flashover_Calculations.xls
154
OBJECTIVES
PREDICTING COMPARTMENT
FLASHOVER
Explain the incipient stage of a fire.
Characterize flashover and its stages.
Describe how to predict the HRR
required for flashover and post-flashover
temperature in a compartment.
155
FLASHOVER ONSET
Flashover is the phenomenon that defines the
point of time at which all combustibles in the
compartment are involved in the fire and
flames appear to fill the entire volume.
(1) the temperature rise in the hot gas reaches
500 C - 600 C (932 - 1112 F).
(2) the radiant heat flux density at the floor of
the compartment reaches a minimum value of
20 kW/m2.
156
PREDICTING FLASHOVER
Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad
Method of Babrauskas
Method of Thomas
157
OTHER PREDICTIONS
Compartment Post-Flashover Temperatures (Thomas
and Law)
K Leq
Av At
1/ 2
158
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The correlations were developed from a simplified
mass and energy balance on a single compartment with
ventilation openings.
(2) The experimental data used to develop the correlation
included compartments with thermally thick walls and
fires of wood cribs. Typically, heat transfer through
compartment surfaces is accounted for with a semiinfinite solid approximation.
(3) The fire severity correlation is not appropriate for
compartment that do not have openings for ventilation.
While no precise minimum can be stated, it is suggested
that this method not be used unless the size of the
opening is at least 0.4 m2 (4 ft2).
159
INPUT NEEDED
160
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (13.10-1)
Consider a compartment 20 ft wide x 25 ft
long x 12 ft high (wc x lc x hc), with an opening
3 ft wide
and 8 ft high (wv x hv). The interior lining
material of the compartment is 6 in. concrete.
Calculate
the HRR necessary for flashover and the
post-flashover compartment temperature,
TPFO.
161
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING PRESSURE RISE
ATTRIBUTABLE TO A FIRE IN A
CLOSED COMPARTMENT
Discuss some systems of pressure
measurement.
Explain how to calculate pressure rise.
Define relevant terms, including pressure rise.
163
PRINCIPLES
In a closed compartment or a compartment with small
leakages, the release of heat from the combustion
process could cause compartment pressure to rise as
a result of the volumetric expansion of gases.
164
CALCULATIONS
According to Karlsson and Quintiere (1999), the
maximum pressure difference inside a compartment as
a result of expansion of gases is given by the following
expression:
165
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The energy release rate is constant.
(2) The mass loss rate of the fuel is
neglected in the conversion of mass.
(3) The specific heat does not change
with temperature.
(4) The hydrostatic pressure difference
over the height of the compartment is
ignored and assumed to be negligible
compared to the dynamic pressure.
166
INPUT NEEDED
167
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (14-10.1)
A closed compartment in a facility
pump room has dimensions 10 ft wide
x 12 ft long x 10 ft high. A fire starts
with a constant HRR of = 100 kW.
Estimate the pressure rise attributable
to the expansion of gases after 10
seconds.
168
OBJECTIVES
ESTIMATING THE PRESSURE
INCREASE AND EXPLOSIVE ENERGY
RELEASE ASSOCIATED WITH
EXPLOSIONS
Define the nature and implications of an explosion.
Explain the various causes, hazards, and effects of
explosions.
Explain how to calculate the energy released by an
explosion.
Explain how to calculate the pressure increase
attributable to an explosion.
170
CHARACTERISTICS
A rapid release of high-pressure gases into the
environment (Cruice, 1991).
A sudden conversion of potential energy into kinetic
energy in the form of rapidly expanding gases (NFPA 921).
A physical reaction: high-pressure gas; confinement or
restriction of the pressure; rapid production or release of
pressure; and change or charge to the confining structure,
container, or vessel caused by the pressure release.
(NFPA 921).
An exothermic chemical process that when occurring at
constant volume, gives rise to a sudden and significant
pressure rise (Vervalin, 1985).
171
EXPLOSION CONCEPTS
Explosion Hazards
Explosive Range
Backdraft Explosions
Smoke Explosion
Unconfined/Confined Explosions
Attributable Damage
Estimating Explosive Energy Release
Blast Effects
172
EXPLOSION CALCULATIONS
Energy Release in a Confined Explosion
Blast Effect
Dsc
D
1
3
TNT
173
BLAST EFFECTS
174
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The method assumes point source blast wave energy
correlation (i.e., TNT equivalent energy).
(2) The ideal point source blast wave correlations cannot
be valid within or near the flammable vapor cloud.
(3) Flammable gases and vapors are mixed with air (or
some other oxidant) in proportions between the lower
and upper flammable limits.
(4) It is important to recognize that practical applications
of flammability/exposibility data for explosion hazard
evaluation should account for nonuniform or stratified
vapor-air mixtures.
175
INPUT NEEDED
176
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (15.18-1)
In an NPP, a liquid propane gas (LPG)-driven forklift is
used to un load materials from an upcoming outage.
Mechanical failure could result in the release of LPG in
the area. The maximum fuel capacity of the forklift is
10 gallons. Calculate pressure rise, energy released by
expanding LPG, and equivalent TNT charge weight.
Assume that the mass of the vapor released is 48 lb.
177
OBJECTIVES
CALCULATING THE RATE OF
HYDROGEN GAS GENERATION IN
BATTERY ROOMS
Explain how hydrogen gas is generated in a battery room.
Describe the conditions under which hydrogen gas will ignite.
Describe possible ignition sources in a battery room.
Explain methods of controlling the combustion of hydrogen gas.
Describe how to estimate hydrogen gas generation rates.
179
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
(1) Adequate ventilation is the most common form of
fire prevention/protection in battery rooms.
(2) The exhaust air outlets from the battery room shall
be located separately
(3) Codes require spill containment systems for battery
installations that contain electrolyte.
(4) NPP should maintain an ambient temperature of 23
to 26 C (72 to 78 F) in battery rooms.
(5) To extinguish lead-acid battery fires, use CO2, fire
protection foam, or dry chemical media.
180
CALCULATIONS
Rate of Hydrogen Generation
181
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) Hydrogen gas is primarily generated in battery rooms
as a result of battery overcharge.
(2) The generation of hydrogen environment could occur
if the ventilation flow through the vapor space is
completely stopped or other events allow hydrogen
accumulation.
(3) This method assumes that significant amounts of
hydrogen gas are liberated only when the battery
approaches full charge.
(4) The calculations will produce a first order
approximation.
(5) The battery hydrogen generation equation is based on
one specific vendors recommendations.
182
INPUT NEEDED
183
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (16.14-1)
Assume a 60-cell GT-41 (3,730 Amperehour) battery near the end of its life, on
equalize at 2.33 VPC at an electrolyte
temperature of 92 F (33 C). Estimate the
rate of hydrogen generation (in cubic feet
per minute).
184
185
OBJECTIVES
CALCULATING THE FIRE RESISTANCE
OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
186
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Fire resistance denotes the ability of a building
component to resist the thermal insult of a standard rest
fire. ( e.g., 1 hour, 3 hours, etc.).
The retention load-bearing capacities by structural
members during a fire is very important.
Buildings collapse when load-bearing members lose their
load-bearing capacity.
The temperature limits for structural steel members are
based on ASTM E119. The maximum single point
temperature in a steel beam, column, or girder is 649 C
(1,300 F) and the allowable average temperature in
these members is 530 C (1,000 F).
187
CALCULATION ENDURANCE
188
ASSUMPTIONS/LIMITATIONS
(1) The heat transfer analysis is one dimensional.
(2) Correlations are based on the analysis of data
resulting from performing the standard test numerous
times, using curve-fitting techniques to establish the
various correlations.
(3) As the structural member heats up, its structural
properties can change substantially.
(4) Equation-specific limitations apply (see the various
equations throughout this chapter).
189
INPUT NEEDED
190
PROBLEM SET
Problem Statement (17.14-1)
Calculate the thickness of spray-on fire
protection required to provide a 2-hour fire
resistance for a W12 x 16 beam to be
substituted for a W8 x 18 beam requiring
1.44 in. of protection for the same rating.
191
FIRE DYNAMICS
TOOLS
(TIER D)
192
HAZARD METHODOLOGY
Tier D Tenability (Hazard Criteria)
D1 (18) Estimating visibility through smoke
D2 Heat release rate
D3 Radiant heat exposure (2.5 kW/m2)
D4 Layer temperature (100oC)
D5 Layer smoke density (0.2/m)
D6 Layer Carbon Monoxide (3,000 ppm)
D7 Layer Oxygen (10 percent or less)
193