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ChemistryandCells 000
ChemistryandCells 000
ChemistryandCells 000
Introduction to
Human Anatomy and
Physiology
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Homeostasis:
Homeostasis:
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Levels of Organization:
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Body Cavities:
The body can be divided into an appendicular
portion (upper and lower limbs) and an axial
portion (head, neck, and trunk), which includes
a dorsal and a ventral cavity. Organs within
these cavities are called viscera.
Organ Systems:
Body Covering
a. The integumentary system,
including skin, hair, nails, and
various glands, covers the body,
senses changes
outside the
body, and helps regulate
body
temperature.
Transport
a. The cardiovascular system, made up
of the heart and blood vessels,
distributes oxygen
and nutrients
throughout the body while
removing wastes from the cells.
b. The lymphatic system, consisting of
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus,
and spleen, drains excess tissue fluid and
includes cells of immunity.
Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new
organisms.
i. The male reproductive system consists of
the testes, accessory organs, and
vessels that conduct sperm to the penis.
ii. The female reproductive system consists
of ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
and external genitalia. The female
reproductive system also houses the
developing offspring.
Anatomical Terminology
Relative Positions:
1. Terms of relative position are used
to describe the location of a part
relative to
another part.
2. Terms of relative position include:
superior, inferior, anterior, posterior,
medial, lateral, proximal, distal,
superficial (peripheral), and deep.
Body Sections:
1. A sagittal section divides the body into
right and left portions.
2. A transverse section divides the body
into
superior and inferior portions. It
is often
called a cross section.
3. A coronal section divides the body into
anterior and posterior sections.
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Body Regions
1. The abdominal area can be divided
into
nine regions.
2. Terms used to refer to various body
regions are depicted in Fig. 1.13.
Chapter 2
Chemical Basis of Life
Introduction:
A. Chemistry deals with the composition
of substances and how they change.
B. A knowledge of chemistry is
necessary
for the understanding of
physiology because of the importance
of chemicals in body processes.
Structure of Matter:
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
C. Bonding of Atoms:
1. Atoms form bonds by
gaining, losing, or
sharing electrons.
2. Electrons are found in
shells
around
the
nucleus.
a. The first energy shell
holds two electrons; the
other energy shells each
hold
eight
electrons
when on the outside.
C. Bonding of Atoms:
3.
4.
5.
Oppositely-charged ions
attract each other and
form an ionic bond.
E. Formulas:
1. A molecular formula represents
the
numbers and types of
atoms in a molecule.
2. Various representations, called
structural
formulas, can be
used to illustrate molecules.
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Constituents of
Cells:
A.
Compounds that contain both
hydrogen and carbon are called organic,
the others are inorganic
1.
B. Inorganic Substances
Water
B.
Inorganic Substances
2. Oxygen
a. Oxygen is needed to release energy from
nutrients and is used to drive the cell's metabolism.
3. Carbon Dioxide
a. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste
product
during energy-releasing metabolic reactions.
1.
C. Organic Substances:
Carbohydrates
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2. Lipids:
2. Lipids:
c. Phospholipids contain glycerol, two
fatty acids, and a phosphate group,
and are
important in cell structures.
d. Steroids are complex ring structures,
and include cholesterol, which is used
to synthesize the sex hormones.
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3. Proteins:
a. Proteins have a great variety of
functions in the body---as structural
materials, as energy sources, as
certain hormones, as receptors on cell
membranes, as antibodies, and as
enzymes to catalyze metabolic
reactions.
3. Proteins:
b. Proteins contain C, O, H, and nitrogen
atoms; some also contain sulfur.
c. Building blocks of proteins are the
amino acids, each of which has a
carboxyl group, an amino group and a
side chain called the R group.
3. Proteins:
d. Proteins have complex shapes held
together by hydrogen bonds.
e. Protein shapes, which determine how
proteins function, can be altered
(denatured) by pH, temperature,
radiation, or
chemicals.
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4. Nucleic Acids:
4. Nucleic Acids:
c. Nucleic acids are of two major types:
DNA (with deoxyribose) and RNA
(with ribose).
d. RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in
protein
synthesis;
DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the
molecular code in genes.
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Chapter 3
Cells
Introduction:
A.
The human body consists of 75
trillion cells that vary considerably in
shape and
size yet have much in
common.
B.
Differences in cell shape make
different
functions possible.
A Composite Cell:
A. A composite cell includes many
different cell structures.
B. A cell consists of three main
parts---the nucleus, the cytoplasm,
and the cell membrane.
C. Within
the
cytoplasm
are
specialized
organelles
that
perform specific functions for the
cell.
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D. Cell Membrane:
1.The cell membrane regulates the
movement of substances in and out of
the cell, participates in signal
transduction, and helps cells adhere to
other cells.
D. Cell Membrane:
2.General Characteristics
a.
The cell membrane is
extremely thin and
selectively
permeable.
b.
It has a complex surface
with
adaptations to
increase
surface
area.
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D. Cell Membrane:
3. Cell Membrane Structure:
a. The basic framework of the cell
membrane consists of a double layer of
phospholipids,
with fatty acid tails turned
inward.
b. Molecules that are soluble in lipids
(gases,
steroid hormones) can pass
through the lipid bilayer.
D. Cell Membrane:
c. Embedded
cholesterol
molecules
strengthen the membrane and help make
the membrane less permeable to
water-soluble substances.
d. Many types of proteins are found in the cell
membrane,
including
transmembrane
proteins and peripheral membrane proteins.
D. Cell Membrane:
e. Membrane proteins perform a variety of
functions and vary in shape.
f. Some proteins function as receptors on the
cell surface, starting signal transduction.
g. Other proteins aid the passage of molecules
and ions.
D. Cell Membrane:
h. Proteins protruding into the cell anchor
supportive rods and tubules.
i. Still other proteins have carbohydrates
attached; these complexes are used in cell
identification. Membrane proteins called
cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs)
help
determine one cells interactions with
others.
A.
B.
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G. Cell Differentiation
1. The process by which cells develop
into different types of cells with
specialized functions is called
differentiation.
2. Cell differentiation reflects genetic
control of the nucleus as
certain
genes are turned on while others are
turned off.
Cell Differentiation