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Instrumentation and Control
Instrumentation and Control
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What is a Process
A process is broadly defined as an operation that
uses resources to transform inputs into outputs.
It is the resource that provides the energy into
the process for the transformation to occur.
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What is a Process
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What is a Process
Each process exhibits a particular dynamic (time
varying) behavior that governs the
transformation.
That is, how do changes in the resource or inputs
over time affect the transformation.
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What is a Process
Can you identify some of the elements that will
determine the dynamic properties of this
process?
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Section Assessment:
Basic Terminology Assessment
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Section Assessment:
Basic Process Control Assessment
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dPV
dt
+ PV = Kp CO(tp)
where:
PV is the measured process variable
CO is the controller output signal
The FOPDT model is simple (low order and linear) so it only
approximates the behavior of real processes
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dPV
dt
+ PV = Kp CO(tp)
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Kp
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PV
CO
COSpan
PVSpan
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m span CO
m 0 100%
%
0.1
0 .1
1 .0
% span PV
% 0 10%
%
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As a rule of thumb:
Process gains that are greater than 1 are a result of
oversized final control elements.
Process gains less than 1 are a result of sensor spans
that are too wide.
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p(
Process Time Constant
Data
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p(
Process Time Constant
Data
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p(
Process Time Constant
Data
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p(
Process Time Constant
Data
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Time Constant(p
Tanks
) for Gravity-Drained
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Time Constant(p
Tanks
) for Gravity-Drained
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Dead time, p, is how much delay occurs from the time when
the CO step is made until when the measured PV shows a
first clear response.
p is the sum of these effects:
transportation lag, or the time it takes for material to
travel from one point to another
sample or instrument lag, or the time it takes to collect,
analyze or process a measured PV sample
higher order processes naturally appear slow to respond
and this is treated as dead time
Dead time, p, must be positive and have units of time
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p = t PVstart
tCOstep
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p = t PVstart
tCOstep
= 0.3 min
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Hands-On Workshop
Workshop #1
Exploring Dynamics of Gravity-Drained Tanks
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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
& Process Control
Interactive Training Workshop
Introduction to Instrumentation
The intent of this chapter is neither to teach you how to
select a particular instrument nor to familiarize you with all
of the available types of instruments.
The intent of this material is to provide an introduction to
commonly measured process variables, including the basic
terminology and characteristics relevant to each variables
role in a control loop.
Detailed information and assistance on device selection is
typically available directly from the instrumentation
supplier.
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Introduction to Instrumentation
Objectives:
What are sensors and transducers?
What are the standard instrument signals?
What are smart transmitters?
What is a low pass filter?
What instrument properties affect a process?
What is input aliasing?
What is instrument noise?
How do we measure temperature?
How do we measure level?
How do we measure level?
How do we measure flow?
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Introduction to Instrumentation
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3 to 15 psig
Before 1960, pneumatic signals were used almost
exclusively to transmit measurement and control
information.
Today, it is still common to find 3 to 15 psig used as
the final signal to a modulating valve.
Most often an I/P (I to P) transducer is used.
This converts a 4-20 mA signal (I) into a pressure
signal (P).
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4-20 milliamp
Current loops are the signal workhorses in our
processes.
A DC milliamp current is transmitted through a pair
of wires from a sensor to a controller or from a
controller to its final control element.
Current loops are used because of their immunity to
noise and the distances that the signal can be
transmitted.
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Output Scaling
Scale outputs for a one-to-one correspondence.
Controller output is configured for 0% to correspond
to a 4mA signal and 100% to correspond to a 20mA
signal.
The final control element is calibrated so that 4mA
corresponds to its 0% position or speed and 20mA
corresponds to its 100% position or speed.
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Input Scaling
Scale inputs for a one-to-one correspondence as well.
Example:
If we were using a pressure transducer with a required
operating range of 0 psig to 100 psig we would calibrate
the instrument such that 0 psig would correspond to 4mA
output and 100 psig would correspond to a 20mA output.
At the controller we would configure the input such that
4mA would correspond to an internal value of 0 psig and
10mA would correspond to an internal value of 100 psig.
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Configuration
Smart transmitters can be configured with a
handheld terminal and store the configuration
settings in non-volatile memory.
Signal Conditioning
Smart transmitters can perform noise filtering and
can provide different signal characterizations.
Self-Diagnosis
Smart transmitters also have self-diagnostic
capability and can report malfunctions that may
indicate erroneous process values.
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instruments
resolution of
instruments
instruments
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Input Span
65,535
Input Span
4,095
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% of full scale
% of span
full scale
span
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Workshop Lab:
Input Aliasing 1
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Rules of Thumb
Set the sample interval for an instrument at 1/10th to
1/20th of the rise time (1/2 to 1/4th of the time constant).
Set the sample interval to 1/10th to 1/20th of the process
time constant.
Temperature instrumentation (RTDs and thermocouples in
thermowells) typically have time constants of several
seconds or more. For these processes sampling intervals
of 1 second are usually sufficient.
Pressure and flow instrumentation typically have time
constants of to 1 second. For these processes sampling
intervals of 0.1 second are usually sufficient.
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Workshop Lab:
Input Aliasing 2
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Filtered Signal
Copyright 2007 Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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Filtered Signal
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By Cut-Off Frequency
Cut-off frequency is defined as frequency above
which the filter provides -3dB of signal attenuation.
Amplitude Out
Amplitude In
dB of attenuation 20 log10
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By Time Constant
Some filters are configured by selecting a time
constant for the lag response of the filter.
The relationship between the cut-off frequency and
the time constant of a low pass is approximately
given by:
1
5 Time Constants
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By Value
Some filters are selected by a value called alpha (),
notably the derivative filter in a PID controller.
is an averaging weighting term used in controller
calculations to impart a first order lag on the
measured variable.
generally has values between 0 and 1. A filter with
a = 0 would pass the signal through unfiltered. A
filter with a = 1 would filter everything allowing
nothing to pass through the filter.
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Workshop Lab:
Noise Filtering
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What is Temperature
Temperature is a measure of degree of the
hotness or coldness of an object.
Units of Temperature
Two most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit
(F) and Celsius (C).
The reference points are the freezing point and the
boiling point of water.
Water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F.
The Celsius scale uses the same reference points
only it defines the freezing point of water as 0C and
the boiling point as 100C.
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What is Temperature
Unit Conversion
5
9
x C 32
x F - 32
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Section Assessment:
Temperature
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What is Pressure
Pressure is the ratio between a force acting on a
surface and the area of that surface.
Pressure is measured in units of force divided by
area.
psi (pounds per square inch)
bar, 1 bar = 14.5 PSI, common for pump ratings
inH20 (inches of water), 27.680 inH20 = 1 psi,
common for vacuum systems and tank levels
mmHg (millimeters of mercury), 760 mmHg = 14.7
psi, common for vacuum systems
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What is Pressure
Absolute, Gauge and Differential
Gauge pressure is defined relative to atmospheric
conditions.
The units of gauge pressure are psig, however gauge
pressure is often denoted by psi as well.
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What is Pressure
Absolute, Gauge and Differential
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Section Assessment:
Pressure
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Section Assessment:
Level
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What is Flow
Flow is the motion characteristics of constrained
fluids (liquids or gases).
Fluid velocity or mass are typically not measured
directly.
Measurements are affected by the properties of
the fluid, the flow stream, and the physical
installation.
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Re124
Dv
Fluid viscosity in cP
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Mass Flow
Coriolis flowmeters
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D 2
r v
v
4
D 2 E
DE
4 kBD 4kB
2
E kBDv
k Constant
B Magnetic Flux Density
D Pipe Diameter
v Fluid Velocity
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Section Assessment:
Flow
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is a control valve?
is an actuator?
is a positioner?
is Cv?
are valve characteristics?
is valve deadband?
is stiction?
are the types of valves
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What is an Actuator
Actuators are pneumatic, electrical, or hydraulic
devices that provide the force and motion to
open and close a valve.
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What is an Actuator
Some actuators can place a valve at any position
between the on and off points.
These actuators typically accept
a 3-15 psi signal to move a
diaphragm, which in turn moves
a connected valve stem.
A pneumatic positional actuator
will fail into the pneumatically
de-energized position.
The interface to a control system for a positional
actuator is typically through an I/P transducer.
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What is an Actuator
Just as processes have a time constants and dead time,
valves have a time constant and dead time, which is
largely determined by its actuator.
Valve manufacturers measure their valve response by a
parameter called T63, which is the time it takes for a
valve to reach 63% of its final position in response to a
command change after the dead time has passed.
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What is a Positioner
A valve positioner is an accessory to a positional
actuator that provides closed loop control of the
valves position.
A positioner is mechanically linked to
the valve stem and compares the
command signal to the valve with the
actual stem position and corrects for error.
Since a positioner is a feedback controller
it too has tuning parameters.
Tune as a cascade loop
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What is Cv
Cv is the symbol for valve coefficient, a measure
of the flow capacity of a valve at a set of
standard conditions.
The flow capacity of a valve is the amount of fluid it will
pass per unit of time.
Flow capacity is usually expressed in gallons per minute
(GPM).
sg
CV Q
P
Where :Q Fluid Flow in GPM
sg Specific Gravity of the Fluid
P Pressure Drop in PSI
Copyright 2007 Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved
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What is Cv
A valve must be of sufficient size to pass the flow
required to satisfy the process under all possible
production scenarios at an acceptable pressure
drop.
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the
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controller
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output
output
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output
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output
output
output
by
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by
-0.5%, wait,
-0.5%, wait,
+0.5%, wait,
+1.0%, wait,
-1.0%, wait,
-1.0%, wait,
+1.0%, wait,
+2.0%, wait.
-2.0%, wait
-2.0%, wait.
+2.0%, wait
+5.0%, wait.
-5.0%, wait
-5.0%, wait.
+5.0%, wait
+10.0%, wait.
-10.0%, wait
-10.0%, wait.
+10.0%, wait.
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The amount of
deadband is the step
size of the step
preceding the one
where the controller
action is followed
consistently.
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What is Stiction
Stiction is the combination of the words stick and
friction.
It occurs when the force required to start valve movement
is much greater than the force required to keep the valve
moving.
When stiction is present it will keep a valve from moving
for small changes in its position command, and then when
enough force is applied the actuator overcomes the initial
resistance and the valve jumps to a new position.
Stiction is often the result of an actuator that is undersized
or excessive friction in the valve packing.
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What is Stiction
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What is Stiction
Testing for Stiction
Step the controller in one direction such that you know all
stiction/deadband will be removed and wait for the process
to stabilize.
Step the controller in the same direction by a small amount
(0.2%) and wait.
Step the controller again in the same direction by the same
amount (0.2%) and wait.
Repeat step 3 until the process variable shows a response
to the controller step.
The amount of stiction is the change in controller output
from step 1 to step 4.
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What is Stiction
Effects of Stiction
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Section Assessment:
Valves
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Pump Head
RPM 2 x Diameter 2
229 2 x g
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N1
Q2 Q1 x
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H 2 H1 x
N1
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P2 P1 x
N1
H 2 Final Horsepower
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N1
Q2 Q1 x
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N2
P2 P1 x
N1
Where P1 Initial Horsepower,
H 2 Final Horsepower
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Section Assessment:
Pumps
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Smart Transmitters
Check the configuration. Make sure the variable
being transmitted is the one you want.
Check the calibration, do the units and range match
the controllers units and range configuration for the
process variable.
Check the filtering. Is an excessive dampening time
(time constant) specified.
Others?
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Temperature Sensors
Check the calibration, does the thermocouple type or
RTD curve match the configuration of the controller.
Check the installation, is the thermowell or sensing
element sufficiently immersed in the medium. Is the
thermocouple or RTD properly fitted for the
thermowell. Is the temperature sensor in the right
place. Is there buildup on the thermowell.
Others?
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Pressure Sensors
Check for plugged lines to the sensor.
Others?
Flow Sensors
Verify that the mounting conforms with the sensor
manufacturer's recommendations, straight runs of
piping, environment, etc.
Others?
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What's changed?
Ask the operator what is different today.
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