Environmental

Engineering and
Safety
Effects on Shells and
Skeletons on Organisms
under the Ocean.

SURVIVAL
To survive in the ocean, soft-bodied organisms

must possess one of five traits: big teeth,

toxic flesh, invisibility, quickness or a hard
shell. Most marine organisms that employ the
latter, called Calcifiers, build their hard shells
from the mineral calcium carbonate.

What is Shell?
A seashell, also known simply as a

shell, is a hard, protective outer layer

created by an animal that lives in the
sea. The shell is part of the body of
the animal.
The term seashell usually refers to

the exoskeleton of an invertebrate

(an animal without a backbone).

Calcium

carbonate minerals(CaCO3)
are the building blocks for the
skeletons and shells of many marine
organisms.

The seawater is supersaturated with

respect
to
calcium
carbonate
minerals(CaCO3). This means there are
abundant building blocks for organisms
to build their skeletons and shells.

Main Point.
Any marine organisms that produce

calcium carbonate shells or skeletons

are
negatively
impacted
by
increasing CO2 levels and decreasing
pH in seawater. For example,
increasing ocean acidification has
been shown to significantly reduce
the ability of reef-building corals to
produce their skeletons.

However, a recent set of experiments

suggests that the ocean acidification story is

more complex than first thought. Whereas
some marine calcifiers reared under the
elevated carbon dioxide levels responded very
negatively, not all of the organisms suffered in
the acidified seawater. Some, in fact,
appeared to benefit from it.

Carbon dioxide levels in our atmosphere are

currently at about 385 ppm. They have been

rising steadily since the late 1700s, due in
large part to the burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation. Modelers predict that if we
dont act to stem carbon dioxide emissions in
the near future, atmospheric carbon dioxide
levels could reach 750 ppm by the year 2100.

In a recent study, coral biologists

reported that ocean acidification

could compromise the successful
fertilization, larval settlement and
survivorship of Elkhorn coral, an
endangered species.

Continued

ocean acidification is
causing many parts of the ocean to
become undersaturated with these
minerals (Calcium Carbonate), which
is likely to affect the ability of some
organisms to produce and maintain
their shells.

In shallow tropical waters, massive

coral reef structures, composed

primarily
of
calcium
carbonate
(CaCO3), offer important habitats to
numerous marine organisms and
provide coastal protection from
storms. Building and maintaining
these
reef
structures
requires
sustained CaCO3 production through
a number of different processes.

Reef-building

corals
construct
intricate frameworks by calcification.
The reef structure is subsequently
bound
and
strengthened
by
encrusting coralline algae and marine
cements.

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