Critical Thinking

LECTURE 3
Basic Logical Concepts
1

Argument
In

critical thinking, an argument is a

claim defended with reasons. The
purpose of the argument is an
attempt to convince someone (or
even yourself) of something.
Refer to Bassham p30

Argument

Premises

SUPPORT

show effort in

CONVINCING
people

Conclusion

Premise Indicators
Since
Because
for/for one thing
for the reason that
follows from
inasmuch as
as shown by

given

that
seeing that
owing to
seeing that
as/as indicated by
assuming that
considering that

Conclusion Indicators

therefore
hence
thus/ergo
so
follows that
consequently
which entails that
which proves that

which implies that

necessarily
must be the case that
which means that
demonstrates that
we can conclude that
as a result

Evaluating Arguments: distinguishing

good arguments from bad ones:

In evaluating any argument, one should

always ask two key questions:
Are

the premises true?

Do the premises provide good reasons to
accept the conclusion?

A Valid Argument
An argument is valid if there is no
possible way for its premises to be true
and its conclusion false (at the same
time). The conclusion, therefore, must
follow from the premise(s).
VALID ARGUMENT TRUE PREMISE
TRUE CONCLUSION

A Valid Argument
For example:
Every student in this class has paid up the
class subscription (true).
Ah Meng is a student of this class (true).
So Ah Meng has paid up his class
subscription.(true)

Definition of a Valid argument

A valid argument is a deductive

argument in which the conclusion claimed
follows necessarily from the premises
that is, a deductive argument in which it is
impossible for the premise to be true
and the conclusion to be false at the
same time.

Examples of Valid/deductive
arguments
If Lassie barks, then Simon will wake up.
Lassi barked.
Simon woke up.
This is a valid argument. It is impossible for
the premises to be true and the
conclusion false.

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A Valid Argument
An argument is valid when it is
impossible for the premises to be true
and the conclusion to be false (at the
same time).
An argument that is not valid is called
invalid.
11

Consider this example

All dogs bark.
Ralph is a dog.
Therefore, Ralph barks.

12

All dogs bark.

Ralph is a dog.
Therefore, Ralph barks.

VALID
13

Lets take a deeper look at this argument:

All dogs bark.

Ralph is a dog.
Therefore, Ralph barks.

14

Lets take a deeper look at this argument:

All dogs bark

Ralph is a dog
Therefore, Ralph barks

15

Lets look again at why its a valid argument:

All dogs bark.

Ralph is a dog.

If this is true
And if this is true

Therefore, Ralph barks. Then Ralph

must be able to
bark. There is no
possible way it
could be a false
statement if the
two premises are
true.
16

But, what if the premises are not true?

If thiscould
is true
be false
All dogs bark This
And if this is true
Ralph
is
a
dog
Sometimes dogs undergo surgery to remove their

larynx (vocal cords). After this sort of operation they

Then Ralph
Therefore, Ralph
barks
cannot bark.

must be able to
bark. There is no
possible way it
could be a false
statement if the
two premises are
true
17

But, what if the premises are not true?

All dogs bark.

This
If thiscould
is true
be false

If this is the case ...

Ralph is a dog

Ralph could be
a dog which has
had its larynx
removed.

Therefore, Ralph barks

then we would say that one of the
premises is not true and we would REJECT
the argument for that reason.
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But, what if the premises are not true?

All dogs bark

This
If thiscould
is true
be false

If this is the case ...

Ralph is a dog
Therefore, Ralph barks
But, the important thing to remember is that
the argument would STILL be VALID!
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WHY would it still be a VALID argument?

All dogs bark.

Its still valid
because
the...same rule applies:
If this
is the case
An argument is valid when the
conclusion
Ralph
is acannot
dogbe false

IF

the premises
true.
Therefore,
Ralpharebarks
Therefore, even though this premise could turn out
But, the important thing to remember is that
to bethe
false,
we
are
only
interested
for
the
purposes
of
argument would STILL be VALID!
determining validity - in what would happen IF it
were true!
20

WHY would it still be a VALID argument?

All dogs bark

Its still valid because the same rule applies:
Ralph
is
a
dog.
An argument is valid when the
conclusion cannot be false

Therefore, Ralph
barks.
IF
the premises are true.

Remember our definition of a valid argument:

Therefore, even though this premise could turn out
to An
be false,
we are
for the purposes
argument
is only
validinterested
when it is -impossible
for theof
determining
- in ifwhat
would happen
IF it
conclusionvalidity
to be false
the premises
are true.
were true!
21

Valid Argument

Valid arguments: The validity of an

argument has nothing to do with the truth
of its premises. If the premises would
guarantee the conclusion, if the premises
were true, then the argument is valid.

22

Valid Argument but false premise

and false conclusion
Valid
1.
2.
3.

argument:

All squares are circles.

All circles are triangles.
Therefore, all squares are triangles.

Remember, a valid argument does not mean it

is a good argument. An argument can be a
good argument and be invalid and could be a
bad argument but be valid (because it has false
premises like the one above).
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However,
Dr Mathew teaches philosophy.
All philosophy professors are bald.
So Dr Mathew is bald.
The argument is valid. There is no possible way
the premises could be true and the conclusion
false at the same time.
But it is a bad argument because the second
premise is false.

24

Invalid Argument
Conclusion that does not follow from the
premise:
Dr Matthew teaches Philosophy.
So Dr Matthew is old.
There is no connection. Premise does not
support conclusion.

25

So what do you know of an invalid

argument?

1. If it does not follow from the premises.

All dogs are animals.
Lassie is an animal.
Therefore, Lassie is a dog.

Invalid

All humans are mortal.

Valid
Socrates is human.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Invalid arguments
All pears are vegetables (false premise)
All fruits are vegetables (false premise)
Therefore, all pears are fruits (true conclusion)
All dogs are cats (false premise)
All cats are whales (false premise)
Therefore all whales are dogs (false conclusion)

Invalid Arguments
If Im a monkeys uncle, then Im a primate
(true premise)
Im not a monkeys uncle (true premise)
So, Im not a primate (false conclusion)

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Deductive and Inductive Arguments

What are Deductive and

Inductive arguments?

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Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Traditionally, arguments have been
divided into two types: deductive and
inductive arguments.
All arguments claim to provide support
that is, evidence or reasons for their
conclusions. But arguments differ in the
amount of support they claim to provide.

Definitions

Deductive arguments
Try to prove their conclusions with
rigorous, inescapable logic/premise(s).
Inductive arguments
Try to show that their conclusions are
plausible or likely given the
premise(s).

Refer to Bassham
p52

Deductive & Inductive Arguments

Deductive
All humans are mortal.
Socrates is human.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Inductive
Every ruby so far discovered has been red.
So, probably all rubies are red.
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Key differences between Deductive

and Inductive Arguments(1)
Deductive arguments claim that
It is impossible for all the premises to be true and the
conclusion false.
It is unlikely for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false.
It is logically inconsistent to accept the premises and deny
the conclusion If you accept the premises, you must
accept the conclusion.
INCONSISTENT - CONTRADICTORY/ CONFLICTING.
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Example of Deductive Argument

` All oaks are trees.
All trees are plants.
So, all oaks are plants.

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Key differences between Deductive

and Inductive Arguments(2)
Inductive arguments claim that..
If the premises are true, then the conclusion is probably
true.
The conclusion follows probably from the premises.
The premises provide good (but not conclusive) evidence
for the truth of the conclusion.
It is unlikely for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false.
Although it is logically consistent to assert the premises
and deny the conclusion, the conclusion is probably true
if the premises are true.
35

Example of Inductive Argument

Most college students own a laptop.
Swee Leng is a college student.
So, Swee Leng probably owns a laptop.

36

DEDUCTIVE OR INDUCTIVE?
1. All men are mortal. (premise)
2. Socrates was a man. (premise)
3. Socrates was mortal. (conclusion)

37

Key differences between Deductive and

Inductive Arguments(3)
Deductive arguments claim that

Inductive arguments claim that

If the premises are true, then the

conclusion must be true.

If the premises are true, then the

conclusion is probably true.

The conclusion follows necessarily

from the premises.

The conclusion follows probably from

the premises.

The premises provide conclusive

evidence for the truth of the
conclusion.

The premises provide good (but not

conclusive) evidence for the truth of
the conclusion.

It is impossible for all the premises to

be true and the conclusion false.

It is unlikely for the premises to be true

and the conclusion false.

It is logically inconsistent to assert the

premises and deny the conclusion, if
you accept the premises, you must
accept the conclusion.

Although it is logically consistent to

assert the premises and deny the
conclusion, the conclusion is probably38
true if the premises are true.

Distinguishing deductive from

Inductive Arguments(1)

Indicator Words:
Deductive:

certainly, definitely, this entails that,

conclusively
Inductive: probably, likely, one would expect, odds
are, reasonable to assume
Like before, indicators are not perfect. They are
not always present, and they can sometimes be
misleading.
(e.g., The speaker may say it certainly follows
but be exaggerating, knowing that it only
probably follows.)
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Distinguishing Deductive from

Inductive Arguments (2)

The Strict Necessity Test:

If

it makes a good (valid) deductive

argument, assume it is. If it does not,
assume it is not.
An arguments conclusion follows with strict
logical necessity from its premises or it does
not.

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Telling the difference between Deductive

and Inductive Arguments (3)

The Common Pattern Test:

There

are many common patterns that valid

arguments use.

For example: If P then Q.

P.
Therefore Q.
This is called Modus Ponens

If

an argument follows one of these patterns, it

is deductive.
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Distinguishing deductive from

inductive arguments
Determine whether the following arguments are
deductive or inductive.
1.
The sign says it is 10 miles to the Kinta river.
Therefore, it is approximately 10 miles to Kinta river.
2.
If Bigfoot is human, then Bigfoot has a heart. Bigfoot
is not human So, Bigfoot does not have a heart.
3.
Simba is a lion. Necessarily, therefore, Simba must
have four legs.
4. All mosquitoes are insects. All insects are animals. So,
all mosquitoes are animals.
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Common Patterns of Deductive

Reasoning
Hypothetical Syllogism
Categorical Syllogism
Argument by Elimination
Argument Based on Mathematics
Argument from Definition

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Common Patterns of Deductive

Reasoning

Hypothetical Syllogism: three line argument

that contains at least one conditional. (if- then)
1 If A then B.
A.
Therefore B. (Modus Ponens)
2 If P then Q.
If Q then R.
Therefore if P then R. (chain argument)
If A then B. Not B. Therefore not A. (Modus Tollens)

44

Example-Modus ponens
If we are in the Kuala Lumpur (A), we are in
Malaysia (B).
We are in Kuala Lumpur (A)
So we are in Malaysia. (B)

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Modus tollens
Consider an example:
If an intruder is detected by the alarm, the
alarm goes off.
The alarm does not go off.
Therefore, no intruder is detected

46

Hypothetical Syllogism
If

A (antecedent) then B (consequent).

A.
Therefore B.
(One conditional premise, a second
premise that asserts as true the
antecedent and a conclusion that
asserts[emphasizes/affirms/stresses] as
true the consequent)
47

Hypothetical Syllogism

Invalid versions (that are still deductive):

If A then B. Not A. Therefore not B. (denying the antecedent)

If I am a female then I am a person.
I am not a female.
Therefore I am not a person.

If A then B. B. Therefore A. (affirming the consequent).

If were on Neptune then we are in the solar system.
We are in the solar system.
Therefore, were on Neptune.

These are still called deductive because usually people

think they are valid when they put them forward.

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Hypothetical syllogism is a valid

argument of the following form:
P Q.
Q R.
Therefore, P R.
In other words, this kind of argument
states that if one implies another, and that
other implies a third, then the first implies
the third.

49

An example of hypothetical
syllogism:
If I do not wake up, then I cannot go to
work.
If I cannot go to work, then I will not get
paid.
Therefore, if I do not wake up, then I will
not get paid.

50

Common Patterns of Deductive

Reasoning

Categorical Syllogism: a three-lined argument in

which each statement begins with the word all,
some or no.
Example Forms:

All as are bs. All bs are cs. Therefore, all as are cs.
Some as are bs. All bs are cs. Therefore some as are
cs.

Example:
All oaks are trees
All trees are plants.
So all oaks are plants.
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Common Patterns of Deductive

Reasoning

Argument by Elimination: seeks to logically

rule out various possibilities until only a single
possibility remains.
Example forms:

A or B. Not B. Therefore A.
P or Q. if A then not P. A. Therefore Q.

Example:
Either Joe walked to the library or he drove.
But Joe didnt drive to the library.
Therefore, Joe walked to the library.
52

Common Patterns of Deductive

Reasoning

Arguments based on Mathematics:

argument in which the conclusion depends
largely or entirely on some mathematical
calculation or measurement.
Example forms:

There are four as and two bs. Therefore there are

six things all together.

Example:
Eight is greater than four. 8>4
Four is greater than two. 4>2
Therefore, eight is greater than two. 8>2
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Common Patterns of Deductive

Reasoning
Arguments from definition: an argument
in which the conclusion is presented as
being true in virtue of the definition of
some key word or phrase.
Examples:

Bob

is a bachelor. Therefore Bob is unmarried.

Janelle is a cardiologist. Therefore, Janelle is
a doctor.
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Activity:
1.Solve the following mini-mysteries
using your deductive reasoning power.

Either Moriarty was the murderer or Stapleton was

the murderer.
If Stapleton was the murderer, then traces of
phosphorus should have been found on the
body.
No traces of phosphorus were found on the body.
Whodunnit?(Who did it?)

2.Solve the following mini-mysteries

using your deductive reasoning power
The murder did not occur in the library.
If Adler was the murderer, then the weapon was a
revolver.
Either Hope was the murderer, or Adler was the
murderer.
If Hope was the murderer, then the murder took
place in the library.
Whodunnit? With what weapon?

3.Solve the following mini-mysteries

using your deductive reasoning power
The murder was not committed on the moor.
If Windi was the murderer, then the weapon was a rope.
Either Windi was the murderer, or Carl was the murderer.
If the weapon was a rope, then the murder was committed
on the lowlands.
If Carl was the murderer, then the weapon was a crowbar.
If the weapon was a crowbar, then the murder was
committed on the moor.
Whodunnit?(Who did it?) With what weapon? Where was
the murder committed?

Summarizing Deductive Validity

A valid deductive argument is an argument in which it

is impossible for all the premises to be true and the
conclusion false. In other words:

If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

The conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.
The premises provide logically conclusive grounds for the truth
of the premises.
The truth of the premises would guarantee the truth of the
conclusion.
It is logically inconsistent to assert all the premises but deny
the conclusion.
It is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion
to be false.
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