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Working Memory
Working Memory
Working Memory
Chapter 3
Working Memory
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Atkinson and Shiffrins (1971) Modal
Model
Environmental Input
Sensory Registers
Detect sensory input from the
various modalities
Visual, auditory, haptic, etc.
Memories are held for only a few
hundred milliseconds
Long-Term Store
Permanent memory store
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Problems with the Modal Model
Levels of Processing Evidence
Neuropsychological Evidence
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Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
The Technique:
Require participants to repeat a sequence of digits out loud while
concurrently performing a variety of cognitive tasks. The digits
should fill up STM and interfere with doing the tasks.
The Test:
Increasing the STM load by adding more digits should cause
more interference in reasoning. However
The Results:
Participants were able to reason without difficulty, even when
repeating sequences of up to eight digits.
Reaction times did slightly increase with digit load but the number
of errors did not increase.
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Sample Reasoning Task
True
A follows B
BA
B precedes A
AB
B is followed by A
BA
A is preceded by B
AB
A is not preceded by B
AB
AB
False
X
X
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STM Digit Load & Reasoning
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Baddeley and Hitch (1974):
Implications
Since
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Baddeley and Hitchs (1974)
Multi-Component Model
Central executive: an
attentionally-limited
system that selects and
manipulates material in
two slave systems:
Visuo-spatial sketchpad:
holds visually and/or spatially
encoded items and arrays
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The Phonological Loop
Aids Language Learning
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PV was Unable to Learn a New
Language
Rate of learning pairs of items by patient
PV and controls. Her capacity to learn pairs
of meaningful words was unimpaired
(panel a), but she was not able to learn
foreign language vocabulary (panel b).
From Baddeley, Papagano, and Vallar (1988). Copyright
Elsevier. Reproduced with permission.
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The Phonological Loop
What Happens with Normal Adults?
Testing
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The Phonological Loop
What Happens with Language-Impaired Children?
Gathercole
The Task:
The nonword repetition test: Pseudo words of increasing
length are heard and must be repeated (e.g. BALLOP,
WOOGALAMIC, VERSATRATIONAL).
Ability to do this task well correlates with vocabulary
development and is used to help diagnose dyslexia.
Studies reveal that phonological memory is crucial for early
vocabulary acquisition (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1989)
Results:
Language-disordered children were impaired on the nonword
repetition task, performing like 4-6 year old normal children.
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Children with Specific Language
Impairments
Percent correct repetition of
nonwords by children with
a specific language
impairment (A), children of
the same age (B), and
children matched for
language level but half their
age (C). Adapted from
Gathercole and Baddeley
(1990).
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Normal Children and Non-Word
Repetition (Table 3.1)
Measures
Correlation
coefficient
Simple
regression
(% variance)
Stepwise
regression
(% variance)
Chronological
age
0.218
5a
5a
Nonverbal
intelligence
0.388
15b
13b
Nonword
repetition
0.525
27b
15b
Sound
mimicry
0.295
9b
Total
0.578
33b
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The Phonological Loop and
Action Control
Vocally
Vygotsky
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The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Imagine what you had for Breakfast.
How Vivid is Your Visual Imagery?
Peoples
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The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Image Manipulation
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Sample Spatial Manipulation Task
form an image of the capital letter
J. Then imagine capital D. Now rotate
the D through 90 degrees to the left
and place it on top of the J. What does
it look like?
First,
An umbrella
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The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Concurrent Tasks
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The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Concurrent Tasks
Just
Visual
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Disruption of Competing Tasks
Left above: Examples of the material developed by Brooks and used to study the visuospatial sketchpad. Participants must repeat the sentences from memory but can use the
matrix to help them. Data from Brooks (1967). Right: The influence on recall of the
Brooks sentences on a concurrent visuo-spatial tracking task. Data from Baddeley et al.
(1973).
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Vividness of Subjective Experience
Baddeley and Andrade (2000)
Hypothesis:
Task:
Baseline conditions
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Working Memory and
Visual Imagery
Baddeley and Andrade (2000)
Results:
Interpretation:
The loop and sketchpad only limit detail when the image
depends on STM fed by current experience.
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Proposed Structure of the
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
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The Central Executive
The
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The Central Executive
Attentional Focus
A
Robins
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The Central Executive
Dividing Attention
Another
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Problems with the ThreeComponent Model of WM
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The Episodic Buffer
A Solution to the Problems with the WM Model?
Episodic
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The Current Model
An elaboration of the
original three-part model
with a few major changes:
Arrow A: language
acquisition
Possibly linked to
emotions
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Individual Differences in WM
WM Span
Task:
Results:
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Individual Differences in WM
Complex Span
Subsystems dealing with the simple storage of verbal and visuospatial material.
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Theories of WM
Cowans Embedded Processes Theory
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Theories of WM
Engles Inhibitory Control Theory
Task:
Remember a set of words, each of which is followed by arithmetic
operations (e.g. APPLE, 7 + 2 1 = ?; HOUSE, 5 1 + 6 = ?; etc.)
Results:
Correlates highly with the original complex span (sentences).
Individuals with a low operation span are more susceptible to proactive
interference than are those with high operation spans.
An inability to resist interference also predicts ones susceptibility to the
cocktail party effect (being distracted by hearing ones own name in a
stream of noise).
Conclusion:
The ability to inhibit irrelevant material is tied to complex span/WM.
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Theories of WM
Time-Based Resource Sharing Model
Suggests that even complex tasks allow brief gaps in which rehearsal
may occur, unless their pacing is rigidly controlled.
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Long-Term WM
(Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995)
This
However,
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The Neuroscience of WM
Single-Cell Recording
Single-Cell Recording
Discovered cells in the monkeys frontal lobe that were active during
the retention intervals on successful trials of a memory task (but not
on unsuccessful ones)
Suggested that these areas of the frontal lobe were important for
WM
Future work has identified similarly responsive cells outside of the
frontal lobe, indicating a more general WM network
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Neuroimaging WM
Paulesu, Frith, and Frackowiak (1993)
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Similar Findings for Visuo-Spatial
PET Imaging
Illustration depicting
PET images of the four
areas activated in the
visuo-spatial working
memory study. Based on
Smith et al. (1996).
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Neuroimaging WM
Smith and Jonides (1997)
Further studies
supported the dorsal
(where) stream vs.
ventral (what)
stream distinction
Spatial memory
activates more dorsal
regions of the brain
Object/pattern memory
activates more ventral
areas
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Neuroimaging WM
The N-Back Task
1-back
1
N-back task:
2-back
7
3-back
7
4
Butto
n
Press