Course 2 Unit 3

Storage and transport logistics

Lecturer: Mariska Ronteltap

m.ronteltap@unesco-ihe.org

Part A Urine storage

Part B - Faeces storage
Part C Transport logistics overview
Part D Detailed analysis of transport options

This unit deals with which part of the sanitation

system?

+ storage at
household
or
community
level

+ storage at
household or
community
level

Course 2 Unit 3

Course 2 Unit 3
Part A: Urine storage

Note: Urine is normally stored pure, or with as little water added as

possible

All technical details presented in this Part A regarding urine pipes and
urine storage tanks are taken from Kvarnstrm et al. (2006), Appendix 2

Purposes of urine storage

1. Sanitisation of the urine, which will

occur over time (increased pH due to
urea conversion to ammonia; time itself
also results in pathogen kill see
Course 2 Unit 1 Part A)
2. To bridge the time in between collection
events by transport vehicle
3. Farmers needs for urine fertiliser is not
constant all year round, but mostly just
before sowing and in the beginning of
the growth period (see also Course 3
Reuse of ecosan products)

Very simple urine collection vessel:

Plastic 20 L jerrycan connected to
outlet of UDD toilet squatting pan
(may need frequent emptying
depending on number of users).
CREPA in Burkina Faso (seen
October 2006)

What is the required urine storage tank volume?

Equation based on household urine production and days between tank
emptying events:

Vstorage = Npeople purine temptying

Vstorage

Required storage volume at household level

Npeople

Number of people in household, e.g. 4.5

purine

Urine production per person and day

(see Course 1 Unit 2; e.g. 1.3 L/cap/d)

temptying

Time between emptying events, e.g. 30 days if emptied once

per month

Then in this example: Vstorage = 4.5 cap 1.3 L/cap/d 30 d = 176 L

Costs of urine storage

Urine storage can be a major cost item in a large-scale urban

ecosan project!
Often a trade-off is made between the theoretical storage time
required for complete sanitisation (see Course 2 Unit 1 Part A)
and the expenditure that is to be made for the urine storage
tanks
The longer the urine storage time, the larger the urine storage
tank and the higher its cost

Key process during urine storage: degradation of

urea to ammonia in water
Urea

Ammonium

Hydroxyl ion (pH rise)

CO(NH2)2 + 3 H2O 2 NH4+ + OH- + HCO3NH4+ + OH- NH3(aq) + H2O

Ammonia (aq = in solution)

Possible problems with urine storage

installations
1. Blockages in pipe from toilet to urine storage tank (see Course 1
Unit 3 Part A for details)
2. Odour (from ammonia)
3. Intrusion of groundwater (for underground tanks)
4. Nitrogen losses (in the form of ammonia)

A lot of the experience with urine storage comes from Sweden

because it is currently the country with the most wide-spread use
of urine-diversion toilets (see next slide)

A selection of places in Sweden where urine diversion is

installed for ten households or more
Since the middle of the 1990s at least
135,000 urine-diverting toilets have
been installed in different settings in
Sweden. Most of the installations are
urine-diverting liners made of plastic
for outhouses at summerhouses or
plastic urine diversion with dry
collection of faeces, but at least
15,000 are made of porcelain and
have either dry- or water-flushed
collection of faeces.
(Source: Kvarnstrm et al. (2006),
page 21)

Map of Southern part of Sweden (Picture

by Johan Palmcrantz & Co.)

Technical requirements for urine piping system

Parameter

Small systems with only

one toilet on each urine
pipe

Larger systems with

several toilets on one
urine pipe

U-bend required (for

odour control)

No

Yes

Pipe diameter inside

the house

At least 25 mm

At least 75 mma

Outdoor pipes

At least 110 mm

At least 110 mm

At least 4%

At least 1%

Slope
Pipe material

Plastic (e.g. PVC)

Need to avoid

Obstacles slowing down the flow, e.g. sharp

bends

Length of piping system

< 10 m

No limit but provide

possibility to inspect,
flush and clean the
a
Where the pipes can be easily cleaned and/or disassembled, 50 mm can be
accepted, at the expense of regular maintenance e.g. flushing everypipes
few years.

Guiding principles for urine pipes

Piping in the system should be minimized as much as possible
(to limit the time the urine is in the piping system and thus the
degradation of urea and risk of precipitation in the system)
To prevent odours, the piping system should be only sparingly
ventilated, pressure equalization is enough
To maximize the flow rate of the urine and the sludge, the
insides of the pipes should be smooth and flow restrictions, e.g.
sharp 90 bends, should be minimized
Remember: Long-distance piping for urine would not be a good
idea!

Course 2 Unit 3

Other specifications for the urine piping system

The possibility to inspect, flush and clean the pipes in both
directions should be provided where there is a sharp bend in the
piping, at all transitions, e.g. from vertical to horizontal piping
and where the pipes leave the house.
Manholes outside the house shall be equipped with child safe
lids that are water tight.
When the collection container is outside of the toilet room, it is
also important that the pipe ends close to the bottom of the
collection container to avoid air flow through the pipe into the
toilet room.
The urine pipe is preferably located in the same piping trench as
other wastewater pipes. It should be clearly marked, so that it is
clearly distinguishable from the other pipes.
It is essential to avoid sedimentation pockets and thus it is
essential that a negative slope is avoided in all parts of the pipe
system.

Materials for urine storage

tanks
Urine is very corrosive and if
possible metals should be
avoided altogether in the
system
Possible options:
Plastic tank, plastic drums
Big rubber bags
Digging a hole in the
ground and covering the
ground with polythene
sheets to create a basin
(covered with polythene
sheets as well)
High-quality concrete
(expensive)
At the farmers end urine
could possibly be stored
directly in the ground itself
(without a plastic liner), see
EcosanRes Discussion
Forum on 10 April 2006 by

This picture shows the plastic urine storage tanks at

Kulln, Sweden during the construction process. The
tanks will be covered with soil. Photo: Mats
Johansson.
(Source: Kvarnstrm et al. (2006), page 36)

Technical requirements for urine

storage tanks
Tanks need to be water-tight and robust
Care should be taken to prevent
groundwater leaking into the pipe system
All connections in the ground must be
completely tight (i.e. welded or glued,
or if possible, avoided altogether) to
minimize the risk for intrusion of
groundwater
If possible, connections in the ground
should be avoided all together
Very simple urine storage tank:
A number of plastic 20 L jerry-cans
(from UDD toilet shown in slide 4).
CREPA in Burkina Faso (seen
October 2006)

Urine storage tank (4 tanks of 2.5 m 3 each) made of polyethylene in the basement of the GTZ head
office building in Eschborn, near Frankfurt in Germany, with sampling and level indicator devices
(installed in August 2006)

Level indicator for urine

Docking station for urine tankers

(insulated pipe for winter
temperatures in Germany)

Example: The first large-scale urine collection system with

urine diversion in Stockholm, Sweden
The system was established in 1997 and
urine from the Understenshjden,
Palsternackan and Gebers residential
areas and the Bommersvik
conference centre is transported to
the Lake Bornsjn area where it is
stored and replaces chemical
fertilizer in agriculture.

Short facts:
Connected households: 130 + 1
conference centre.
Type of toilets: 50% Dubbletten,
25% Gustavsberg and 25% Wost
Man Ecology single flush.
Glass-fibre tanks in each housing
area 15 40 m3 each.
Yearly volume of collected urine:
150 -170 m3.
Storage tanks: 3 PVC balloon
tanks of 150 m3 each.

P. Jenssen

Storage takes place at Bornsjn, and the urine

is used on fields in the background owned by
the Stockholm Water Company.

Course 2 Unit 3

Course 2 Unit 3

Part B: Faeces storage

Different types of faeces collection require

different types of storage
Type of faeces

Toilet type

Type of storage

Type 1:
Faeces without water (but
with ash, sand, lime etc.,
and with or without toilet
paper)

UDD toilet;
composting toilet

In the faeces vault

of a UDD toilet
In smaller buckets
and then added to
composting process

Type 2:
Faeces with small amount
of water (one litre of water
per defecation)
= blackwater

Vacuum toilets (with Intermediate storage

or without UD)
possible, e.g. in
septic tank
Toilets where faeces
collected together with
anal washwater

UD water-flush
No storage Type 3:
toilets
usually discharged to
Faeces with large amount
the sewer
of water (e.g. several litres Conventional water Could be stored in
of water per defecation)
flush toilets (mixed
Type 1 faeces is certainly the easiest to store and treat in a low-income
also called brownwater
with urine)
septic tank
setting

Storage of Type 1 faeces

(faeces collected without water)
Faeces volumes are much smaller
than urine volumes, hence its
storage is easier to realise
For waterless systems: Can be
stored inside of faeces vault in a
UDD toilet (typically one year),
receiving primary treatment
For secondary treatment, storage
and treatment are combined, e.g. in
anaerobic digestion or composting
(will be discussed in Course 2 Unit 4
and 6)

Example: Faeces storage in the vault of a

UDD toilet
Photo: Edward Guzha, Mvuramanzi Trust
in Harare, Zimbabwe

Storage of Type 2
faeces (blackwater
from vacuum toilets)

Top: Blackwater from vacuum toilets (without

UD) after the macerator pump; this is fresh
excreta over time the colour would turn
black (anaerobic conditions).
Right: Storage tanks for blackwater of 80
persons (they produce ~ 5.6 L/cap/d)
Sneek, The Netherlands, March 2007

Course 2 Unit 3

Storage of Type 3 faeces (faeces plus water,

from UD water-flush toilets)
In the case of UD water-flush toilets in Switzerland and Sweden,
the faeces-water mixture is not stored but discharged to the
sewer and wastewater treatment plant
Research projects are ongoing to treat the faeces-water mixture
with membrane bioreactors and other high-tech processes

You can imagine that Type 3 faeces are quite difficult to store and
treat at low cost

What is the required faeces storage tank

volume?
Equation based on household faeces production and days between tank
or vault emptying events:

Vstorage = Npeople pfaeces temptying

Vstorage

Required storage volume at household level

Npeople

Number of people in household, e.g. 4.5

pfaeces

Faeces production per person and day (see Course 1

Unit 2; e.g. 50 L/cap/year see also next slide)

temptying

Time between emptying events, e.g. 1 year

Then in this example: Vstorage = 4.5 cap 50 L/cap/year 1 yr. = 225 L

Specific faeces (or faeces-water) production to

be used in calculations
Type of faeces

Pfaeces to be used in
equation on previous
slide

Comments

Type 1:
Faeces without water

At excretion (wet): ~
50 L/cap/year *

Remember, faeces at excretion

are about 80% water
Using the wet amount would be
conservative for storage vault
sizing

After drying:
~ 10 L/cap/year
Type 2:
Faeces with small
amount of water
= blackwater

2044 L/cap/year

Using the value of 5.6 L/cap/d

measured in Sneek (remember 1
L per flush; therefore people flush
5.6 times per day)

Type 3:
Faeces with large
amount of water
= brownwater

12 264 L/cap/year

Assuming people flush 5.6 times

per day and 6 L per flush

* Value from Sweden check for your country (see Course 1 Unit 2 Part B)

Course 2 Unit 3

Course 2 Unit 3
Part C: Transport logistics overview
Definition of the word logistics:
Logistics can be considered as a tool for getting resources, like products,
services, and people, where they are needed and when they are desired.
(www.wikipedia.org)

Urban ecosan logistical challenges:

flow movements into and out of the urban area
Arrows are indicating:
Food and water in to the city
Water, urine, faeces out of the city

27

The shorter the distances, the better

27

Safe transport options for different types of

materials derived from excreta
Consistency
of material

Types of excretabased material

Transport option

Comments

Dry

Dried faeces from

UDD toilet vaults
Compost
Household solid
waste

Trucks, tractors,
trailers, tricycles

Similar to solid waste collection

systems

Liquid and
pumpable

Faecal sludge (pit

latrines, septic
tanks)
Digested sludge
from anaerobic
digesters

Vacuum tankers
Pipes and pumps

Vacuum tankers: see next slide

Pipes and pumps: in most cases
not cost-effective, unless distance
are very short

Urine

Barrels or tanks
on tricycle or truck

Pipes are not suitable for urine on

its own, but possibly together with
greywater

Greywater

Small-bore sewers

Greywater is too diluted to be

transported in any other way than
with pipes

Course 2 Unit 3

Pumping with vacuum tanker

Commonly used to
remove faecal sludge from
septic tanks, pit latrines
Direct contact of the
workers with the faecal
sludge is minimized
quite a safe technique
Tanks may be mounted on
carts pulled by tractor or
animals smaller units
possible

A quick coupling at the

property line for rapid and
safe emptying of a
blackwater holding tank by
vacuum trucks

Source: ACTS

Truck with a vacuum pump for

blackwater removal,
Bangalore, India

Source: Heeb et al. (2007)

Example of a vacuum tanker operation in

industrialised country
The photos on the next slide shows how a vacuum tanker is
used at a highway restaurant in Germany
The task is to empty the holding tank which is used for all
the kitchen wastewater from the restaurant
There is a grease trap for the kitchen wastewater
The hose from the vacuum tanker is placed in an access
manhole
On the photo top right, the worker is jetting water into the
storage tank to clean it out better and to allow better pumping
The size of the vacuum tanker is 10 m3 plus 2 m3 of water for
the cleaning
One can nicely see the safety precuations used, e.g. the bright
clothing, gloves, boots with steel toe caps
Seen January 2007, photos by E. v. Mnch

Course 2 Unit 3

Low-cost vacuum tanker for emptying faecal sludge from pit

latrines

Vacuum tank (500 L) and pump/tug assembly with 5.9 kW petrol

engine. For pit emptying with difficult access conditions. Ideally suited
for micro-enterprise use
Source: http://hq.unhabitat.org/cdrom/water/HTML/PDFs/vacutug.pdf

Safety precautions during excreta handling and

transport
Critical points from a health risk
perspective
Protection measures when
handling fresh and stored excreta:
Gloves
Shoes
Wash hands afterwards
Store material out of reach for
people or animals
Manual handling should be
eliminated wherever it is possible

J. Heeb

Source: Heeb et al. (2007)

Main issues with transporting dry solid

material (faeces)

Transport logistics could be linked

to the citys solid waste
management system
Amounts of dry faeces are much
smaller than conventional solid
waste
Remember: dry mass of faeces ~
30 g/cap/d; but solid waste
production ~ 200 500 g/cap/d in
cities in India (see Course 1 Unit 2
Part B)

Could be a business opportunity

for small private enterprises
If containers are used inside of the
vault for faeces collection, keep in
mind the maximum weight that one
or two people can move, when the
full container is removed and
exchanged for an empty one

Need to find suitable

vehicles to fit type of access
lanes

Dried faeces taken out of a double-vault UDD

toilet vault (Slob (2005), p. 111)

Main issues with transporting liquid material:

urine
Pipes tend to block up, so cannot be transported by pipe over
longer distance
Road based transport most common
Distance to reuse site should be as short as possible
Very rough rule of thumb: approx. 120 km is maximum
economical distance
Disadvantages of road based transport: CO2 emissions, noise,
dust, increased traffic
This is still a challenge for large scale ecosan in urban context

What transport distances would have to be covered in your city?

Course 2 Unit 3

Main issues with transporting liquid material:

greywater
Small-bore sewers is most likely the best solution (see Course 2
Unit 8)

Main issues with transporting liquid material:

faecal sludge
Vacuum tankers are best solution (privately operated or
operated by municipality)

But in reality, manual emptying with buckets is still common in

low-income settings!
Many people cannot afford to pay for a vacuum tanker
service and hence try to empty it themselves somehow

Unsafe, manual pit

emptying can look
like this!
The health risks for
this worker are
incredibly high let alone the lack of
human dignity!

Photo taken in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, by Doulaye Kon,

SANDEC/EAWAG, Switzerland

Course 2 Unit 3

Course 2 Unit 3
Part D: Detailed analysis of transport options

This part of the presentation builds on the work done by

Marieke Slob (2005): Logistic aspects of ecological
sanitation in urban areas Case study in low-income
community in Delhi, India
All photos and numbers in this Part D are taken from that
excellent MSc thesis

Distinction between transport with a transfer (top row)

and direct transport (bottom row)
Slob (2005), p.43

Transfer becomes necessary when haul distances increase to such

a distance that direct transport is no longer economical, or when the
destination can only be reached with a different means of transport
It is cheaper to haul a large volume of waste in large increments
over a long distance than it is to haul a large volume of waste in
small increments over a long distance

Broad options for the logistics system

Primary collection system

Road
Only possible for greywater, not for urine
Pipes
Secondary collection system
Road
Rail
Only relevant for longer distances
Water
Only possible for greywater, not for urine
Air
Pipes

Overview of possibilities for main logistics system

Main logistics
system

Operator
of primary
collection

Means of collection

Analogy with existing

collection systems

Public toilets

Househol
d member

Inside the body of

household member

Household
member brings
urine and/or
faeces to a
collection point

Househol
d member

Household containers

Communal collection
(households discharge
their waste at
predetermined locations).
Refuse-collection vehicles
visit these sites at frequent
intervals to remove waste
(secondary collection)

Collection vehicles
collect urine
and/or faeces at
each household

Collection
service

Household container is
switched for empty
container or household
container is emptied into
collection vehicle

Door-to-door collection
service

Piping system on
street/block level

Automatic
(collection
service)

Small diameter pipes

from households to a
large collection tank

Small bore sewerage

(small diameter sewers
laid at shallow gradients to
convey sewage)

Course 2 Unit 3

Overview of logistics chain with primary and

secondary collection

The general logistics chain is the same for urine and faeces, although the
handling method and type of vehicles might be different for the two
excreta types (Slob (2005), p. 47)
Each point of the logistics chain (numbers 1 to 8 above) has to be
designed and costed to make a cost estimate of the transport system

Factors affecting vehicle selection

Housing density
Waste generation per
household per period
Waste density
Haul distance
Road surface (muddy,
sandy, stony, firm)
Road widths
Road gradient
Availability of spare parts
and service

Traffic type and density

Waste corrosiveness and
abrasiveness
Waste hazardousness
Labour and fuel cost
Available capital
Strength of user in case
propulsion is (partly)
manually
Risk of theft, damage and
abuse
Slob (2005), p. 48

Steps to design a transport system

1.
2.
3.
4.

Identify own situation (source, destination, roads, toilet system)

Adapt general criteria for the transport system to own situation
Identify possible vehicle and handling options
Organise group meetings with inhabitants, excreta and solid
waste collectors and farmers
5. Assess remaining options on the criteria of step 2 and conclude
which vehicles and equipment are the most suitable
6. Calculate the costs of the most suitable options as a result of
step 5
7. Make a suitable design
Source: Slob (2005)

Collection and transport options for urine

Pouring the household containers into a collection container on
a small vehicle
Pumping the urine with a hand pump from the household
container into a collection container on small vehicle
Using a centrifugal pump mounted on a tractor-driven trailer with
a plastic tank on it (see next slide)
Discarded options:
Using a vacuum pump mounted on a tractor driven trailer
with a vacuum tank too expensive
Using gravity by constructing the containers at a high level
too visible
Switching the full household container for an empty one and
emptying them at a transfer station double handling and
transport, and cleaning of containers required

Slob (2005), p. 80

Generator to operate a pump

(Slob (2005), p. 81)

Tractor with trailer to transport urine (in tanks) or faeces

(Slob (2005), p. 81)
Square plastic tank for urine
which could be fixed onto the
trailer (Slob (2006, p. 81)

Course 2 Unit 3

Vacuum pumps or centrifugal pumps?

A vacuum pump is the standard to pump a
slurry (a vacuum pump can handle the
viscosity of the slurry and solid particles,
making it a robust pump)
A vacuum tank construction needs thick
sheets of steel to be able to hold the
vacuum build-up in the tank
Since urine is a liquid like water, it does
not need an expensive vacuuum
construction to pump it
A centrifugal pump with a plastic tank
will be sufficient and cheaper

Hand pump (semi-rotary

pump): small and light,
seuction depth of 5 m and
capacity of 25 50 L/min.
(Slob (2005), p. 79)

Collection vehicle of solid waste collector: Tricycle without engine (Slob (2005), p. 56)

Course 2 Unit 3

Tricyle with engine

(Slob (2005), p. 79)

Tricyle with closed body to keep

faeces out of sight and to prevent
material from falling on the
ground

Calculations for urine transport

The following equations are set up for urine transport in general
The numbers used in the example are from Slob (2005), p.
89 for urine transport from 8,000 households with tricycles
with engine (no flush water added)

Calculation of number of vehicles required for

urine transport
1. Decide on work day factor (e.g. 1.17, see Table 1 on next slide)
2. Calculate urine quantity to be collected Eqn. (1)
3. Decide on capacity of collection vehicle (e.g. 300 L, see Table
1)
4. Decide on days between collection events (e.g. 14 days)
5. Calculate the number of households covered in one trip (e.g.
3.5 Eqn. (2))
6. Calculate duration of one trip (e.g. 49 min., see Table 2)
7. Calculate number of trips possible per day (e.g. 8.6) Eqn. (3)
8. Decide on efficiency factor (e.g. 1.25, see Table 1)
9. Calculate the number of trips needed per day (e.g. 192) Eqn.
(4)
10. Calculate number of vehicles required (with the numbers
above, the result is: 28) Eqn. (6)
11. Go back to step 3 and 4 and change design figures to check if
better solution my be found (iterative procedure)

Table 1: Design parameters

(Values from Slob (2005), p. 88 89)

Parameter

Value (example)

Comments

Work day
factor

1.17
(= 7/6)

Collection service operates

six days out of seven

Efficiency
factor

1.25
(=100/80)

Efficiency factor of 80% is

assumed to allow for
breakdowns and
maintenance; number of
vehicles is multiplied with
100/80

Effective work
time

7 hours/day

Assume a workday of 8 hours

but allow 1 hour for breaks

Capacity of
collection
vehicle

Tricyle without engine: 100 L

Tricycle with engine: 300 L
Tractor with trailer: 3000 L

Size of common trailer for

tractor: 1.5 m wide and 2.5 m
long
In rainy season, the capacity
of vehicles may be reduced

Quantity to be collected per household

Vurine, HH = Npeople, HH purine tcollection

Eqn. (1)

Vurine, HH

Collection quantity per household (L/HH) in this example

the value is 86 L/HH

Npeople, HH

Number of people in household, e.g. 5

purine

Urine production per person per day (see Course 1 Unit 2;

e.g. 1.23 L/cap/d)

tcollection

Time between collection events, e.g. 14 d

Course 2 Unit 3

Number of households covered in one trip

NHH, trip = Vvehicle / Vurine, HH

Eqn. (2)

NHH, trip

Number of households covered in one trip (in this

example the number is 3.5)

Vvehicle

Capacity of transport vehicle, e.g. 300 L

Vurine, HH

Collection quantity per household (L/HH) in this

example the value is 86 L/HH

Table 2: Total duration of one trip

Activity

Example
(minutes)

Driving to first house

10

Handling per house and driving to

next house

12
(4 houses x 3
min.)

Total filling time of tank (= 300 L and

25 L per minute)

12

Driving to transfer point

10

Unloading

Total durating of one trip (ttrip)

49

Slob (2005), p. 89

Calculated from
equation on
previous slide
for NHH, trip

Number of trips possible per day

ftrips, poss = Nhours ttrip
ftrips, poss

Eqn. (3)

Nhours

Number of trips possible per day (in this example the

number is 8.6)
Working hours per day, e.g. 7 h/d

ttrip

Duration of one trip, e.g. 49 min. = 0.82 h

Trips needed per day

ftrips, needed = Qurine / Vvehicle

Eqn. (4)

Qurine = Npeople, HH purine fWD NHH

Eqn. (5)

ftrips, needed

Vvehicle

Number of trips needed per day (in this example the

number is 192 trips/day)
Quantity of urine to be collected per day (including work
day factor) in this example, the number is 57,400 L/d
Capacity of the vehicle, e.g. 300 L

Npeople, HH

Number of people per household, e.g. 5

Purine

Urine production per capita per day, e.g. 1.23 L/cap/d

FWD

Work day factor, e.g. 1.17 (see Table 1)

NHH

Number of housholds covered in the scheme, e.g. 8000

Qurine

Course 2 Unit 3

Number of vehicles needed

Nveh., needed = ftrips, needed / ftrips, poss

Eqn. (6)

Nveh., needed

Number of vehicles needed (including efficiency factor)

in this example, the number is 28

ftrips, needed

Number of trips needed per day, e.g. 192 trips per day

ftrips, poss

Number of trips possible per day, e.g. 8.6 trips per day

Efficiency factor, e.g. 1.25 (see Table 1)

Concluding remarks

A worked example (using the same numbers as here) for urine

transport is given on page 89 of Slob (2005)
The equivalent calculation can be made for faeces transport
(using the mass of faeces instead of volume, e.g. 50
kg/cap/year of faeces)
Only 2.4 vehicles (tricycle with engine) would be needed for
the faeces, see p. 121 of Slob (2005)

Example figures showing impact of flush water

Some households in this case study area were insisting that
flush water should be added after urination
This would increase the volume to be transported
considerably
Urine volumes per household (5 people per household, 1.23
L/cap/d, assuming 3 urination events per day):
Urine storage
emptying frequency

No flush
water added

liter flush water added

after urination

daily

6 litres

14 litres

weekly

43 litres

96 litres

every 2 weeks

86 litres

191 litres

Example result for number of vehicles required for

faeces transport comparing three different
options
5

Number of vehicles per option

Tractors

Tricycles

3
2
1
0
Tricycle without motor

Tricycle with motor

Tractor

Course 2 Unit 3

Example result: size of storage container and

number of vehicles versus emptying time period

350

# Vehicles required

120
100

300
80

250
200

60

150

40

100
20

50
0

0
1

14

21

28

Collection frequency (days)

35

42

# Vechicles required

Size of storage container

Size of storage container

(litre)

400

References

Heeb, J., Jenssen, P., Gnanakan, K. & K. Conradin (2007): ecosan

curriculum 2.0. In cooperation with: Norwegian University of Life
Sciences, ACTS Bangalore, Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation, German Agency for Technical Cooperation and the
International Ecological Engineering Society. Partially available from
www.seecon.ch and
http://www2.gtz.de/dokumente/oe44/ecosan/cb/en-m23-ecosan-human-di
gnity-lecture-2006.ppt

Kvarnstrm, E., Emilsson, K., Richert Stintzing, A., Johansson, M.,

Jnsson, H., af Petersens, E., Schnning, C., Christensen, J.,
Hellstrm, D., Qvarnstrm, L., Ridderstolpe, P., and Drangert, J.-O.
(2006) Urine diversion: One step towards sustainable sanitation, Report
2006-1, EcoSanRes Programme, Stockholm Environment Institute,
Stockholm, Sweden. - of relevance here is in particular Appendix 2.
Available: http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/Urine_Diversion_20061.pdf (also under extra reading)

Slob, M. (2005) Logistic aspects of ecological sanitation in urban areas.

Case study in low-income community in Delhi, India. MSc Thesis,
University of Twente, The Netherlands and WASTE, Gouda (
mariekslob@hotmail.com) (also under extra reading)