PART 3 - RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
THE RESEARCH DESIGN

What is a research design?

After the task of defining the research
problem, the researcher next turns to
determining the design of the research
project-i.e research design
A research design is a plan (arrangement)
for a study used as a guide to collect and
analyze the data to achieve study
objectives;
According to Kerlinger (1986), a research
design is a plan, conceptual structure and
strategy of investigation conceived as to
obtain answers to research questions or
problems.
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What is a research design? (contd)

It constitutes what researcher will do to
complete study- processes like;

Design study sample- set criteria,

How to measure the items/(variables) in the
study,
Operationalize variables to data items, thus
Identify what data to collect: ensure data to
answer each objective is identified
Decide method to be used to collect data,
How to analyze the data collected

In

summary in research design , you make

design decisions, and answer the how
about your research

What is a research design? (contd)

A

research design thus serves two

functions:
1.
2.

Identification, development of procedures /logical

arrangements of a study
To ensure adequacy of procedures for obtaining:
valid, objective and accurate answers to
research questions

It is similar to the plan drawn by an architect

for a house.

Types of research design

Correlational
Field (survey)
Experimental
Qualitative
Longitudinal
Exploratory research
Meta-analysis
Descriptive and diagnostic research studies
Causal(statistically speaking) to asses cause
and effect.

Types of research design

The research design also reflects the purpose of
the inquiry, which can be characterized as one or
more of the following:
Exploration -high levels of uncertainty and
ignorance about
Description -provide an accurate and valid
representation of (encapsulate) the factors or
variables
Explanation /analytical study - causal links
PredictionEvaluation
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Benefits of a research design

A

research design thus ensures:

i) that the study will be relevant to the
problem at hand
ii)

that the researcher will use economical

procedures

iii)

that the procedures used will give valid,

objective and accurate answers to the
research questions

.Benefits (contd)
iv)

offers a guide that directs the research

action, and helps to rationalize the use of time
and resources

v)

helps to ensure all aspects of the research

are covered

vi)

helps minimize biases during data

collection

vi)

makes replication easier and more effective

i.

The research design decisions are therefore

made in respect of:
What is the study about? name of the study
design: is it descriptive, cross-sectional,
exploratory, experimental etc

ii.

Why is the study being conducted?- purpose

iii.

Where will the study be carried out and for

how long?

iv.

What type of data is required?-qualitative or

quantitative data or both

research design decisions

(contd)
v) Where can the required data be found?sources of data; primary or secondary or both
vi) From whom will the data be obtained?-sample
units
vii) How will consent be obtained from them?
viii)

How should respondents contact the

researcher if they have queries (in case of
questionnaires being left behind)

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ix) In case of interviews, where will they be

conducted?
x)

How will ethical issues be taken care of ?

xi) How will the data be analysed?

By the time you are done answering

each of these questions, you have your
research plan in place
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Features of a good design

1.

A good design is characterised by flexibility,

appropriateness and efficiency.

2.

The design should minimise bias and maximise

the reliability of the data collected and analysed.

3.

It is a plan that specifies the sources and types

of information relevant to the research problem.

4.

It takes into consideration the nature of the

problem to be studied
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..features of a research design are:

5.

It is a strategy specifying which

approach will be used for gathering
and analysing the data face to face
interviews; telephone interviews?.

6.

It also takes into consideration the time

and cost budgets since most studies
are done under these two constraints.
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Summary In

short, always choose a research

design that will give answers to the
research objectives in a cost effective
way and will provide reliable data

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Concepts & Variables

The various concepts relating to designs

1. Dependent and independent
variables

A concept which can take on different

quantitative values (a variable)
Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are
also quantified
If one variable depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable --- a
dependent variable,
the variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable --- an independent variabl

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Concepts & Variables

Concept: A concept is a mental impression,

image about something.

Meaning of concepts differs from one individual to

another. That is,
Concepts are subjective impressions
Concepts cannot be measured

Variable: A variable is a rational unit of analysis

Assumes any number of designed set of values,

Takes on different values with changing conditions
Is a concept that can be measured

When concepts are operationalized, they

become variables--- and can now be
measured

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Concepts relating to research design

Variable:

A concept takes on different

quantitative values, and its called a
variable.
Concepts such as weight, height,
income are all examples of variables.
Qualitative

concepts such as marketing

strategies are also variables that are
quantified on the basis of their presence
(or absence) in the subjects under
study.

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Example 1

How would you measure a group of peoples academic

achievement so as to determine those with high academic
achievements and those with low academic
achievements?

The Concept is: academic achievement

Operationalization: Grades/Marks- measured in
percentages-----or High, Low, Average
Variables: Percentage of marks obtained in each of the
above: if greater than 75%...High, ..; if less than 40---Low
else its Average
Indicators: average marks obtained in examinations,
average marks obtained in practical work, aggregate
marks etc

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Example 2
Study: To determine the effectiveness of the
Infant welfare Program in Public hospitals in
Kenya
Concept: Effectiveness: how do you
determine effectiveness of something?
Variables: Patient (infant) attendance to
clinic/weight/deaths- e.g. Attendance indicates

effective treatment, increase in weight, Low death rate

Variable can be measured by taking -attendance (days,

percent) per month; changes in weight (in kgs); rate of
mortality/deaths- for those who attend per month etc
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Example
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Concept: Social class/Dimensions: Economic class;

Variable: Income -level;

Empirical referent/Indicator: amount of money
Concept: /Dimensions: Occupational status;
Variable: type of occupation;
Empirical referent/Indicator: category of job
Concept/Dimensions: Educational status;
Variable/: education level
Empirical referent/Indicator: years of formal study, No. of
degrees/certificates obtained
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Types of Variables-Summary
Dependent variable: If one variable depends upon
or is a consequence of the other variable, it is
termed as a dependent variable,
Independent variable, the variable that influences
the dependent variable is termed as an independent
variable.
Example: Factors affecting the survival rate of
businesses at SIWAKA plaza.

Independent Variables_ Biz survival rate factors

Dependent Variable- Survival rate/outcome

Discuss: What is the effect of age on learning

ability?
(What is the dependent and independent variable
here?)

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Extraneous variable: Independent variables

that are not related to the purpose of the study,
but may affect the dependent variable are
termed as extraneous variables.

For example, in studying the relationship

between marketing strategies and the
profitability of a firm, other variables such as
disposable incomes of consumers could also
affect profitability because they influence
peoples purchasing power.

Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable

as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically
described as an experimental error. Error
term
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Conceptual framework
Pollocks model

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Conceptual framework
Factors affecting survival
of small businesses
Demand

Survival rate
Capital base

Independent Variables

Dependent Variable

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Operational framework
Factors affecting survival
Of small businesses

Demand

-Sales
-No. of customers

Survival rate

-No. biz surviving in 5 yrs

No. biz started over 5 yrs

Capital base
- Amount invested

Independent Variables

Ratio

Dependent Variable

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Types of Research Designs

Assignment

for practice

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1. Exploratory Research Design-also called formulative

Its Uses - main purpose of such
studies

Types of research techniques

used for exploratory studies

to

formulate a problem for

more precise investigation.

Literature search- Group 1

Experience survey Group
1
Very little is known about the Selected case analysis
problem
Group 2
Focus groups Group 3
discovery of ideas and
In depth- interviews
insights into the problem
Group 4
Projective techniques
To Clarify concepts that are Group 5
Observations/Ethnographies
unclear
Group 6
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2. Descriptive Research Designs

Its Uses

Research Techniques

in describing segment
characteristics

i) Longitudinal study
Group 7
True panel
Omnibus panel
ii) Cross-sectional study
Group 8
Sample survey

in estimating how many

people behave in certain
way (buy, prefer)

in making specific
predictions

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3. Causal Research Designs

Its Uses

Research Techniques

in providing evidence
regarding causal
relationships

Used

in hypothesis
testing research studies

experiments are used to

collect data i.e
Laboratory experiments
Field experiments
Group 9

Its

where the researcher

tests the hypothesis of
causal relationships
between variables
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Research Based On
Questioning
Qualitative

research - generally used for

exploratory purposes - small number of
respondents - not generalizable to the whole
population - statistical significance and
confidence not calculated - examples include
focus groups, in-depth interviews, and
projective techniques.

Qualitative

research is used for developing new

ideas or to get a "gut feeling" for a given
subject or problem.
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Research Based On Questioning

(contd)

Quantitative research generally used to draw

conclusions - tests a specific hypothesis- uses
random sampling techniques so as to infer
from the sample to the population - involves a
large number of respondents - examples
include surveys and questionnaires.

Quantitative research primarily involves

surveys based on representative samples
where data is collected using mail, telephone
or personal interviews.
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contd
Results

from quantitative studies can be

projected to entire populations and therefore
used in predicting.

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Research Based On
Observation

Ethnographic studies -, these studies are by nature

qualitative,

the researcher observes social phenomena in their natural

setting - observations can occur cross-sectionally
(observations made at one time) or longitudinally
(observations occur over several time-periods)

Observation techniques personal (human eye); mechanical

(cameras; video recordings);

Example: product-use analysis.

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Research Based On
Observation (contd)
Experimental

research- by nature
quantitative, the researcher creates a quasiartificial environment to try to control factors,
then manipulates at least one of the variables

- examples include purchase laboratories

and test markets

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