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Digital Transmission Fundamentals
Digital Transmission Fundamentals
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Contain slides by Leon-Garcia
and Widjaja
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Digital Representation of Information
Why Digital Communications?
Digital Representation of Analog Signals
Characterization of Communication Channels
Fundamental Limits in Digital Transmission
Line Coding
Modems and Digital Modulation
Properties of Media and Digital Transmission Systems
Error Detection and Correction
Digital Networks
Digital
Telephone
Questions of Interest
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Digital Representation of
Information
Text message
Data file
JPEG image
MPEG file
Stream
Information that is
produced & transmitted
continuously
Real-time voice
Streaming video
Transmission Delay
L
number of bits in message
R bps
speed of digital transmission system
L/R
time to transmit the information
tprop time for signal to propagate across medium
d
c
distance in meters
speed of light (3x108 m/s in vacuum)
Delay = tprop + L/R = d/c + L/R seconds
Compression
Information
Compression Ratio
#bits (original file) / #bits (compressed file)
Color Image
W
H
Color
image = H
Red
component
image
Green
component
image
Blue
component
image
+ H
+ H
Method
Format
Original
Compressed
(Ratio)
Text
Zip,
compress
ASCII
KbytesMbytes
(2-6)
Fax
CCITT
Group 3
A4 page
200x100
pixels/in2
256
kbytes
5-54 kbytes
(5-50)
JPEG
38.4
Mbytes
1-8 Mbytes
(5-30)
Color
Image
Stream Information
Th e s p ee
ch s
g n al l e
v el
v a r ie s w i th
m(e)
Original signal
3 bits / sample
Sample value
Approximation
CD Audio
Ws = 22 kHertz 44000
samples/sec
16 bits/sample
Rs=16 x 44000= 704 kbps
per audio channel
MP3 uses more powerful
compression algorithms:
50 kbps per audio
channel
Video Signal
Frame resolution
30 fps
Video Frames
176
QCIF videoconferencing
at 30 frames/sec =
144
760,000 pixels/sec
720
Broadcast TV
480
at 30 frames/sec =
10.4 x 106 pixels/sec
1920
HDTV
at 30 frames/sec =
1080
67 x 106 pixels/sec
Method
Format
Video
Conference
H.261
176x144 or
352x288 pix
@10-30
fr/sec
2-36
Mbps
64-1544
kbps
Full
Motion
249
Mbps
2-6 Mbps
HDTV
MPEG
2
1.6
Gbps
19-38 Mbps
1920x1080
@30 fr/sec
Original Compressed
Transmission of Stream
Information
Constant
Variable
bit-rate
bit-rate
Chapter 3
Communication
Networks and Services
Why Digital Communications?
A Transmission System
Transmitter
Receiver
Communication channel
Transmitter
Converts information into signal suitable for transmission
Injects energy into communications medium or channel
Receiver
Receives energy from medium
Converts received signal into form suitable for delivery to user
Transmission Impairments
Transmitter
Transmitted
Signal
Received
Signal Receiver
Communication channel
Communication Channel
Pair of copper wires
Coaxial cable
Radio
Light in optical fiber
Light in air
Infrared
Transmission Impairments
Signal attenuation
Signal distortion
Spurious noise
Interference from other
signals
Analog Long-Distance
Communications
Transmission segment
Source
...
Repeater
Destination
Repeater
Distortion
Attenuation Received
Distortion
Attenuation
Received
Simple Receiver:
Was original pulse
positive or
negative?
Digital Long-Distance
Communications
Transmission segment
Source
Regenerator
...
Regenerator
Destination
Bit Rate
Observations
Telephone
twisted pair
33.6-56 kbps
Ethernet
twisted pair
ADSL twisted
pair
28 GHz radio
1.5-45 Mbps
5 km multipoint radio
Optical fiber
2.5-10 Gbps
1 wavelength
Optical fiber
>1600 Gbps
Many wavelengths
Examples of Channels
Channel
Bandwidth
Bit Rates
Telephone voice
channel
3 kHz
33 kbps
Copper pair
1 MHz
1-6 Mbps
Coaxial cable
500 MHz
(6 MHz channels)
30 Mbps/
channel
5 GHz radio
(IEEE 802.11)
300 MHz
(11
channels)
54 Mbps /
channel
Many TeraHertz
40 Gbps /
wavelength
Optical fiber
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Digital Representation of
Analog Signals
1.
2.
3.
x1(t)
10 10 1 0 1 0
...
x2(t)
11 1 1 0 000
...
...
...
t
1 ms
1 ms
Periodic Signals
DC
long-term
average
a2cos(22f0t + 2) +
+ akcos(2kf0t + k) +
fundamental
frequency f0=1/T
first harmonic
kth harmonic
10 10 1 0 1 0
...
x2(t)
11 1 1 0 000
...
...
...
T1 = 1 ms
T2 =0.25 ms
4
cos(24000t)
4
+ 3 cos(23(4000)t)
4
+ 5 cos(25(4000)t) +
x1(t) = 0 +
4
cos(21000t)
4
+ 3 cos(23(1000)t)
4
+ 5 cos(25(1000)t) +
x2(t) = 0 +
Spectrum of a signal:
magnitude of amplitudes as
a function of frequency
x1(t) varies faster in time &
has more high frequency
content than x2(t)
Bandwidth Ws is defined as
range of frequencies where
a signal has non-negligible
power, e.g. range of band
that contains 99% of total
signal power
Spectrum of x1(t)
Spectrum of x2(t)
(noisy )
|p
(air stopped)
| ee (periodic)
| t (stopped) | sh (noisy)
X(f)
f
0
Ws
Sampling Theorem
Nyquist: Perfect reconstruction if sampling rate 1/T > 2Ws
(a)
x(t)
x(nT)
t
Sampler
(b)
x(nT)
x(t)
t
Interpolation
filter
2W samples / sec
Analog
source
Sampling
(A/D)
Quantization
Original x(t)
Bandwidth W
2W m bits/sec
Transmission
or storage
Approximation y(t)
Display
or
playout
Interpolation
filter
Pulse
generator
2W samples / sec
output y(nT)
input x(nT)
Quantization error:
noise = x(nT) y(nT)
3 bits / sample
Original signal
Sample value
7/2
5/2
3/2
/2
-/2
-3/2
-5/2
-7/2
Approximation
Quantizer Performance
M = 2m levels,
...
-V
input
...
x(nT)
e =
2
2
dx =
12
Quantizer Performance
Figure of Merit:
Signal-to-Noise Ratio = Avg signal power / Avg noise power
Let x2 be the signal power, then
SNR =
x 2
2
12
x
=
/12 4V2/M2
= 3(
x
V
) M = 3(
2
x
V
)2 22m
SNR db = 6m - 7.27 dB
for V/x = 4.
m = 8 bits/sample
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Characterization of
Communication Channels
Communications Channels
Cost:
Communications Channel
Transmitter Transmitted
Received
Signal Receiver
Signal
Communication channel
Signal Bandwidth
In order to transfer data
faster, a signal has to vary
more quickly.
Channel Bandwidth
A channel or medium has
an inherent limit on how fast
the signals it passes can
vary
Limits how tightly input
pulses can be packed
Transmission Impairments
Signal attenuation
Signal distortion
Spurious noise
Interference from other
signals
Limits accuracy of
measurements on received
signal
t
A(f) =
Aout
Ain
Ideal filter: all sinusoids with frequency f<W c are passed without attenuation and
delayed by seconds; sinusoids at other frequencies are blocked
Phase Response
(f) = -2f
1
0
Wc
1/ 2
f
Amplitude Response
1
A(f) =
Phase Response
(f) =
1
(1+42f2)1/2
0
-45o
-90o
tan-1 2f
1/ 2
f
Wc
Channel Distortion
x(t) =
a cos (2f t + )
k
Channel
y(t)
1 0
0 0
...
1
...
1 ms
0 0
Let x(t) input to ideal lowpassfilter that has zero delay and
Wc = 1.5 kHz, 2.5 kHz, or 4.5 kHz
4
sin( )cos(21000t)
4
4
4
+
sin( 2 )cos(22000t) +
sin(3 )cos(23000t) +
4
4
x(t) = -0.5 +
Amplitude Distortion
0.625
0.75
0.875
0.625
0.75
0.875
0.75
0.875
0.5
0.375
0.25
0.125
0.5
0.375
0.25
(b) 2 Harmonics
0.625
0.5
0.375
0.25
0.125
(c) 4 Harmonics
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0.125
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
(a) 1 Harmonic
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
As the channel
bandwidth
increases, the
output of the
channel
resembles the
input more
closely
Time-domain Characterization
h(t)
Channel
0
td
0
-7T
-6T
-5T
-4T
-3 T
-2 T
T 0
-1-0.2
-0.4
1T
2T
3T
4T
5 T
6 T
7 T
+s(t)
1
+s(t-T)
0
-2 T
-1T
1T
-1
r(t)
2T
3T
4T
-s(t-2T)
2
1
0
-2T
-1T
0
-1
-2
1T
2T
3T
4T
A(f)
sin(t/T) cos(t/T)
t/T 1 (2t/T)2
(1 )Wc Wc (1 + )Wc f
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Fundamental Limits in Digital
Transmission
+A
0
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
-A
Bandwidth of a Channel
X(t) = a cos(2ft)
Channel
Bandwidth Wc is range of
frequencies passed by channel
A(f)
Wc
Ideal low-pass
channel
2T
3T
4T
+A
-A
Transmitter
Filter
5T
Communication
Medium
Receiver
Filter
r(t)
Receiver
Received signal
Multilevel Signaling
Nyquist pulses achieve the maximum signalling rate with zero ISI,
2Wc pulses per second or
2Wc pulses / Wc Hz = 2 pulses / Hz
With two signal levels, each pulse carries one bit of information
Bit rate = 2Wc bits/second
Composite waveform
+A
+A
+5A/7
+A/3
+3A/7
+A/7
-A/7
-A/3
-3A/7
Typical noise
-5A/7
-A
-A
Four signal levels
Noise distribution
x0
Pr[X(t)>x0 ] = ?
1
2
Pr[X(t)>x0 ] =
Area under
graph
x 2 2 2
x0
Probability of Error
Pr[X(t)> ]
1.00E+00
1.00E-01
1.00E-02
1.00E-03
1.00E-04
1.00E-05
1.00E-06
1.00E-07
1.00E-08
1.00E-09
1.00E-10
1.00E-11
1.00E-12
/2
signal
noise
noise
signal + noise
virtually error-free
signal + noise
Low
SNR
error-prone
SNR =
Example
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Line Coding
1.2
NRZ
Bipolar
0.6
0.4
Manchester
0.2
fT
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
-0.2
0.2
0
0
pow er density
0.8
1.8
Unipolar NRZ
Polar NRZ
Unipolar NRZ
1 maps to +A pulse
0 maps to no pulse
High Average Power
0.5*A2 +0.5*02=A2/2
Long strings of A or 0
Poor timing
Low-frequency content
Simple
Polar NRZ
Bipolar Code
1
Bipolar
Encoding
Manchester
Encoding
Differential Coding
1
NRZ-inverted
(differential
encoding)
Differential
Manchester
encoding
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Modems and Digital
Modulation
Bandpass Channels
fc + Wc/2
fc Wc/2 fc
+1
Amplitude
Shift
Keying
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
-1
+1
Frequency
Shift
Keying
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
-1
Phase Modulation
Information
Phase
Shift
Keying
+1
2T
3T
4T
5T
-1
6T
Ak
Yi(t) = Ak cos(2fct)
cos(2fct)
Transmitted signal
during kth interval
x
2cos(2fct)
Lowpass
Filter
(Smoother)
Xi(t)
Example of Modulation
1
Information
Baseband
Signal
+A
-A
Modulated
Signal
x(t)
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
+A
-A
A cos(2ft)
-A cos(2ft)
Example of Demodulation
A {1 + cos(4ft)} -A {1 + cos(4ft)}
After multiplication
at receiver
x(t) cos(2fct)
Baseband
signal discernable
after smoothing
Recovered
Information
+A
-A
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
2T
3T
4T
5T
6T
+A
-A
If
Baseband signal x(t)
with bandwidth B Hz
then
Modulated signal
x(t)cos(2fct) has
bandwidth 2B Hz
f
fc-B
fc
fc+B
Yi(t) = Ak cos(2fct)
cos(2fct)
Bk
Yq(t) = Bk sin(2fct)
Y(t)
Transmitted
Signal
sin(2fct)
QAM Demodulation
Y(t)
x
2cos(2fct)
x
2sin(2fct)
Lowpass
filter
(smoother)
Ak
2cos2(2fct)+2Bk cos(2fct)sin(2fct)
= Ak {1 + cos(4fct)}+Bk {0 + sin(4fct)}
Lowpass
filter
(smoother)
smoothed to zero
Bk
Signal Constellations
Each
Signal
Bk
(-A,A)
(A, A)
Ak
(-A,-A)
Ak
(A,-A)
Bk
Bk
Ak
Ak
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Properties of Media and Digital
Transmission Systems
Fundamental Issues in
Transmission Media
d meters
Communication channel
t=0
t = d/c
106
104
102
10
Gamma rays
1010
X-rays
108
Optical
fiber
Ultraviolet light
106
Frequency (Hz)
Broadcast
radio
Power and
telephone
102 104
WiFi
Cell
phone
Visible light
DSL
Microwave
radio
Analog
telephone
of communications signals
Infrared light
Frequency
Wired Media
Signal energy contained &
guided within medium
Spectrum can be re-used in
separate media (wires or
cables), more scalable
Extremely high bandwidth
Complex infrastructure:
ducts, conduits, poles, rightof-way
Attenuation
Twisted Pair
26 gauge
24 gauge
30
Attenuation (dB/mi)
Twisted pair
Two insulated copper wires
arranged in a regular spiral
pattern to minimize
interference
Various thicknesses, e.g.
0.016 inch (24 gauge)
Low cost
Telephone subscriber loop
from customer to CO
Old trunk plant connecting
telephone COs
Intra-building telephone from
wiring closet to desktop
In old installations, loading
coils added to improve quality
in 3 kHz band, but more
attenuation at higher
frequencies
24
22 gauge
18
19 gauge
12
6
f (kHz)
10
Lower
attenuation rate
analog telephone
100
1000
Higher
attenuation rate
for DSL
Standard
Data Rate
Distance
T-1
1.544 Mbps
DS2
6.312 Mbps
1/4 STS-1
12.960
Mbps
1/2 STS-1
25.920
Mbps
STS-1
51.840
Mbps
Ethernet LANs
Coaxial Cable
35
0.7/2.9 mm
30
Attenuation (dB/km)
Twisted pair
Cylindrical braided outer
conductor surrounds
insulated inner wire
conductor
High interference immunity
Higher bandwidth than
twisted pair
Hundreds of MHz
Cable TV distribution
Long distance telephone
transmission
Original Ethernet LAN
medium
1.2/4.4 mm
25
20
15
10
2.6/9.5 mm
5
0.1
1.0
10
100
f (MHz)
Upstream
750
MHz
550 MHz
500 MHz
54 MHz
42 MHz
5 MHz
Downstream
Head
end
Upstream fiber
Fiber
node
Fiber
Downstream fiber
Coaxial
distribution
plant
= Bidirectional
split-band
amplifier
Fiber
node
Fiber
Optical Fiber
Electrical
signal
Modulator
Optical fiber
Receiver
Electrical
signal
Optical
source
Cladding
Jacket
Core
Total Internal Reflection in optical fiber
Rays on different paths interfere causing dispersion & limiting bit rate
Single mode: Very thin core supports only one mode (path)
Disadvantages
New types of optical signal
impairments & dispersion
Polarization dependence
Wavelength dependence
If physical arc of cable too
high, light lost or wont
reflect
Will break
Difficult to splice
Mechanical vibration
becomes signal noise
50
Loss (dB/km)
10
5
Infrared absorption
1
0.5
Rayleigh scattering
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.8
850 nm
Low-cost LEDs
LANs
1.0
1.2
1.4
1300 nm
Metropolitan Area
Networks
Short Haul
1.6
1.8
Wavelength (m)
1550 nm
Long Distance Networks
Long Haul
/ 1
1 + /
1
v
1 +
v
2
1
Example: 1= 1450 nm
1 =1650 nm:
2(108)m/s 200nm
B=
19 THz
(1450 nm)2
100
50
10
Loss (dB/km)
5
1
0.5
0.1
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
1
2.
optical
mux
optical
fiber
optical
demux
1560
1550
1540
Coarse WDM
Few wavelengths 4-8
with very wide spacing
Low-cost, simple
Dense WDM
Many tightly-packed
wavelengths
ITU Grid: 0.8 nm
separation for 10Gbps
signals
0.4 nm for 2.5 Gbps
DWDM
multiplexer
Optical Amplifiers
OA
Optical
amplifier
OA
OA
OA
Radio Transmission
Radio Spectrum
Frequency (Hz)
104
105
106
108
107
109
1011
1010
1012
FM radio and TV
Wireless cable
AM radio
Cellular
and PCS
MF
103
HF
102
VHF
101
UHF
1
SHF
10-1
EHF
10-2
10-3
Wavelength (meters)
Omni-directional applications
Point-to-Point applications
Examples
Cellular Phone
Allocated spectrum
First generation:
800, 900 MHz
Initially analog voice
Second generation:
1800-1900 MHz
Digital voice, messaging
Wireless LAN
Unlicenced ISM spectrum
Industrial, Scientific, Medical
902-928 MHz, 2.400-2.4835
GHz, 5.725-5.850 GHz
IEEE 802.11 LAN standard
11-54 Mbps
Point-to-Multipoint Systems
Directional antennas at
microwave frequencies
High-speed digital
communications between sites
High-speed Internet Access Radio
backbone links for rural areas
Satellite Communications
Geostationary satellite @ 36000
km above equator
Relays microwave signals from
uplink frequency to downlink
frequency
Long distance telephone
Satellite TV broadcast
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
Error Detection and Correction
Error Control
Key Idea
User
Encoder
information
Channel
Channel
output
Pattern
checking
Deliver user
information or
set error alarm
Info Bits:
Check Bit:
Codeword:
bk+1=
# of 1s =5, odd
Error detected
# of 1s =4, even
Error not detected
Information bits
Recalculate
check bits
k bits
Calculate
check bits
Channel
Sent
check
bits
n k bits
Received
check bits
Compare
Information
accepted if
check bits
match
p (1 p)
2
n-2
n
4
p4(1 p)n-4 +
P[undetectable error] =
32
2
(10-3)2 (1 10-3)30 +
32
(10-3)4 (1 10-3)28
4
o o
o
o
x x
x x x o o
o
x
x
o
o
o o o
Poor
distance
properties
x = codewords
o = noncodewords
o x
x o
o
o
o
x
o
o
o
o
o
o
x o x
Good
distance
properties
Error-detecting capability
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
One error
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 Three
errors
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0
Two errors
1, 2, or 3 errors
can always be
detected; Not all
patterns >4 errors
can be detected
Four errors
(undetectable)
Internet Checksum
Checksum Calculation
The checksum bL is calculated as follows:
b0+b1=12+10=7 mod15
b2 = -7 = 8 mod15
Therefore
b2=1000
=10110
=0111 (1s complement)
=7
Take 1s complement
b2 = -0111 =1000
Polynomial Codes
Polynomials
Addition:
(x7 + x6 + 1) + (x6 + x5) = x7 + x6 + x6 + x5 + 1
= x7 +(1+1)x6 + x5 + 1
= x7 +x5 + 1 since 1+1=0 mod2
Multiplication:
(x + 1) (x2 + x + 1) = x(x2 + x + 1) + 1(x2 + x + 1)
= x3 + x2 + x) + (x2 + x + 1)
= x3 + 1
34
35 ) 1222
105
divisor
17 2
140
32
quotient
dividend
remainder
Polynomial Division
divisor
x3 + x2 + x
= q(x) quotient
x3 + x + 1 ) x6 + x5
x6 +
x4 + x3
x5 + x4 + x3
x5 +
dividend
x3 + x2
x4 +
x4 +
x2
x2 + x
x
= r(x) remainder
Polynomial Coding
q(x)
xn-ki(x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)
g(x) ) xn-k i(x)
r(x)
Define the codeword polynomial of degree n 1
k bits
n-k bits
Polynomial example: k = 4, nk = 3
Generator polynomial: g(x)= x3 + x + 1
Information: (1,1,0,0)
i(x) = x3 + x2
Encoding: x3i(x) = x6 + x5
x3 + x2 + x
x3 + x + 1 ) x6 + x5
x6 +
1110
1011 ) 1100000
1011
x 4 + x3
1110
1011
x 5 + x4 + x 3
x5 +
x 3 + x2
x4 +
x4 +
x2
x2 + x
x
Transmitted codeword:
b(x) = x6 + x5 + x
b = (1,1,0,0,0,1,0)
1010
1011
010
Shift-Register Implementation
1.
2.
3.
4.
Division Circuit
Encoder for g(x) = x3 + x + 1
0,0,0,i0,i1,i2,i3
g0 = 1
g1 = 1
Reg 0
g3 = 1
Reg 2
Reg 1
Clock
0
1
Input
1 = i3
Reg 0
0
1
Reg 1
0
0
Reg 2
0
0
1 = i2
0 = i1
0 = i0
5
6
7
bits:
0
0
0
r0 = 0
1
1
0
r1 = 1
0
0
1
r2 = 0
r(x) = x
1
0
0 Check
b(x)
(Receiver)
R(x)=b(x)+e(x)
CRC-8:
= x8 + x2 + x + 1
CRC-16:
= x16 + x15 + x2 + 1
= (x + 1)(x15 + x + 1)
CCITT-16:
= x16 + x12 + x5 + 1
CCITT-32:
ATM
Bisync
Hamming Codes
m
3
4
5
6
n = 2m1 k = nm
7
4
15
11
31
26
63
57
m/n
3/7
4/15
5/31
6/63
m = 3 Hamming Code
Information bits are b1, b2, b3, b4
Equations for parity checks b5, b6, b7
b5 = b1
+ b3 + b4
b6 = b1 + b2
b7 =
There
are 24 = 16 codewords
(0,0,0,0,0,0,0) is a codeword
+ b4
+ b2 + b3 + b4
Codeword
Weight
w(b)
b1
b2
b3
b4
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7
+ b3 + b4 + b5
0 = b6 + b6 = b1 + b2
0 = b7 + b7 =
In matrix form:
+ b4
+ b2 + b3 + b4
+ b6
+ b7
b1
b2
= 1011100
b3
= 1101010
b4 = H bt = 0
= 0111001
b5
b6
b7
1011100
s=He= 1101010
0111001
1011100
s=He= 1101010
0111001
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
= 0
1
1
0
1
= 1 + 0 = 1
1
1
0
1
= 1 +
0
0
1
1 + 0 = 0
1
1
Distance 3
1
b
o
o
2
Set of ntuples
within
distance 1
of b2
For
R (Receiver)
e Error pattern
No errors in
transmission
(1p)7
Undetectable
errors
7p3
s=0
13p
Correctable
errors
7p(13p)
3p
Uncorrectable
errors
21p2
Chapter 3
Digital Transmission
Fundamentals
RS-232 Asynchronous Data
Transmission
(a)
14
(b)
DTE
25
Ground (G)
20
20
22
22
DCE
Synchronization
Synchronization of
clocks in transmitters
and receivers.
Data
T
Example: assume 1
and 0 are represented
by V volts and 0 volts
respectively
Data
Correct reception
Incorrect reception due
T
to incorrect clock (slower
clock)
S
1
0
Clock
0
Clock
Synchronization (contd)
Asynchronous transmission
Synchronous transmission
1
Data
T
S
Clock
Asynchronous Transmission
Start
1
bit
3T/2
Stop
bit
Synchronous Transmission
Voltage
time