Leadership

Submitted By:
Pravesh Khanna
Vaibhav Aggarwal
Neha Aggarwal
Richa Kalra
Amit Poddar
 Leadership defined
Leadership:

Can be regarded as the

process of influencing the
activities of a group toward
goal attainment in a given
situation.
 Important Studies on
Leadership
• Iowa Leadership Studies
• Ohio State Leadership Studies
• Michigan leadership studies
 Iowa Leadership Studies
• In this study, schoolchildren were assigned
to either authoritarian, democratic, or
laissez-fair leadership groups.
• Autocratic leader
– Dictating, allowed no participation
• Democratic Leader
– Encouraged group discussion and decision
making
• Laissez-faire leader
– Gave complete freedom.
 Iowa Leadership Studies
• The experiments were designed
primarily to examine the patterns
of aggressive behavior, but the
effects on productivity were not
directly examined.
 Ohio State Leadership
Studies
Questionnaire based study
Consideration: people-oriented behavior
• Is considerate towards subordinates
• Provides open communication
• Develops teamwork
Initiating Structure: task-oriented
behavior
• Directs subordinate work activities toward goal
attainment
• Typically gives instructions, spends time
planning, and emphasizes deadlines
• Provides explicit schedules of work activities
 Ohio State Leadership
Studies

Effective leaders should be high on both consideration and initiating

structure.
Michigan leadership studies.
Employee-centered supervisors.
Place strong emphasis on subordinate’s welfare.

Production-centered supervisors.
Place strong emphasis on getting the work done.
Michigan leadership studies
• Employee-centered supervisors have
more productive work groups than
production-centered supervisors.
 Trait Theory
Assumptions
• Leaders are born, not made
• To be an effective leader an individual
must have certain personality traits
• Traits are stable and transferable across
situations
• Traits are identifiable and measurable
 Personal Characteristics
of Leaders
Physical Personality Social
Characteristics Self-confidence Characteristics
Energy Honesty & integrity Sociability,
Physical Enthusiasm interpersonal skills
stamina Desire to lead Cooperativeness
Independence Ability to enlist
cooperation
Tact, diplomacy

Intelligence and Work-related

Ability Characteristics
Judgment, Achievement drive
decisiveness Drive to excel
Knowledge Conscientiousness in pursuit of goals
Intelligence, Persistence against obstacles, tenacity
cognitive ability

Source: Adapted from Bernard M. Bass, Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership, rev. Ed. (New York: Free Press, 1981), 75-76. This adaptation appeared in R. Albanese and D. D. Van Fleet,
Organizational Behavior: A managerial Viewpoint (Hinsdale, III.: The Dryden Press, 1983).
 Trait Theory - Limitations
• No universal traits found that
predict leadership in all situations.
• No consistent relationship
between attributes and leader
behavior.
• Training may help improve a person
only if he possesses the basic
traits.
• There cannot be uniformity of traits
across all levels of an organization.
 Leader–Member Exchange
(LMX) or Vertical Dyad Linkage
Dyadic relationship between two parties
in which both have the power to
influence the other .
 Leader–Member Exchange
(LMX) or Vertical Dyad
Linkage
• Leaders may use different leadership styles
with different members of the same
workgroup, based in part on perceived
similarities and differences with the leader.
• Leaders tend to divide subordinates into an
in-group and an out-group based on
perceived leader–member similarities.
• Members of the in-group tend to perform
better than do those in the out-group.
Leader–Member Exchange
(LMX) Theory (contd)
 LMX Theory (contd)
• Working with an in-group allows a leader to
accomplish more work in a more effective
manner than working without one.

• In-group members are willing to do more

than is required of their job description

• In response to their extra effort and

devotion, leaders give them more
responsibilities and more opportunities.
 LMX Theory (contd)
• Out-group members operate strictly within their
prescribed organizational roles.
• Leaders treat out-group members fairly and
according to the formal contract, but they do
not give them special attention.
• For their efforts, out-group members receive the
standard benefits as described by the job
description.
• Out-group members act quite differently from
in-group members. They do what is required of
them, but nothing more.
 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
of Leadership
 Fiedler Initiated the contingency theory in the mid-
1960s.
 After the Trait Theory proved to fall short of being an
adequate theory of leadership, attention turned to the
situational aspects of leadership.
 ‘It Depends’
 It is called contingency because it suggests that a
leader’s effectiveness depends on how well the
leader’s style fits the context.
• Basic Assumption: The effectiveness of
a group is contingent upon the
relationship between the leadership
style and the degree to which the
situation enables the leader to exert
influence.

1. Effectiveness--is the degree to which the

group accomplishes it task
 2. Leadership Style
• Task-oriented- leader gets basic needs gratified by
accomplishing the task.
• Relations-oriented- leader gets needs gratified by
achieving good personal relations

3. Situational Control (Favorableness of the

situation)--Is the degree of power and influence
that leaders have to implement their plans,
decisions, and strategies.
 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
of Leadership
 Dimensions :
1. The leader-member relationship
2. The Degree of task structure
3. The leader’s position power
• FIEDLER’S MODEL
 LPC Measurement: Describe
“the person with whom you had
the most difficulty in getting a job
done” (Northouse 86).
Scoring

Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant _______

Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unfriendly _______
Rejecting
Distant
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Accepting
Relaxed
_______
_______ • Low LPC:
Cold 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Warm _______
Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Boring 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Hostile _______
Interesting _______
– 57 or below
Quarrelsome
Gloomy
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cheerful
Harmonious
_______
_______
– You are task
Open 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Backbiting 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Closed
Loyal
_______
_______
motivated
Untrustworthy 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Trustworthy _______
Considerate 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Inconsiderate _______
Nasty 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Nice _______
Agreeable
Insincere
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Disagreeable
Sincere _______
_______ • High LPC:
Kind 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unkind _______
– 64 or above
Total _______
– You are relationship
motivated

• Middle LPC:
– Between 58 to 63
 APPLICATION OF FIEDLER'S WORK:
1. Fiedler and his colleagues developed
a self programmed training
manual(called LEADER MATCH) .
2. Trainee is taught ways to diagnose
the situation so as to change it and
optimize the leader style –leader
situation match.
 .
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY IN PERSPECTIVE:

1. It was the first highly visible leadership theory to present

contingency approach.
2. It emphasized the importance of both situation and leader’s
characteristics in determining leader effectiveness.
3. It stimulated a great deal of research and inspired
formation of alternative contingency theories.
4. It lead to development of LEADER MATCH program that
applies the model to actual leadership situation.
 Path-Goal Theory
• Path-goal theory was developed by
Robert House.
• The theory states that it is the
leader’s job to assist followers in
attaining their goals and to provide
them the necessary direction and/or
support to ensure that their goals are
compatible with the overall objectives
of the group or organization.
• The leader attempts to make the
path to subordinate’s goals as
smooth as possible .But to
accomplish this path-goal
facilitation ,the leader must use the
appropriate style contingent on the
situational variables present.
• Rooted in Expectancy Theory Of
Motivation
 Contd…

 House incorporated four types of leadership behaviors:

 Directive Leadership: subordinates know exactly
what is expected of them
 Supportive Leadership: the leader is friendly and
approachable and shows genuine concern for
subordinates.
 Contd…
 Participative Leadership: the leader asks for
and uses suggestions from subordinates but
still make the decisions.
 Achievement-Oriented Leadership: the leader
sets challenging goals for subordinates and
shows confidence that they will attain these
goals and perform well.
Path-Goal Theory
 Contd…
Environmental Factors
 Determine the type of leader behavior required
as a complement if the followers outcomes are to
be maximized.
Employee Characteristics
 Personal characteristics of employee determine
how the environment and the leader behavior are
interpreted.
The theory proposes that the leader behavior
will be ineffective when it is redundant with
sources of environment structure or
incongruent with employee characteristics.
Predictions based on Path-
Goal Theory
• Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction
when task are ambiguous or stressful.
• Supportive leadership results in high employee
performance and satisfaction when employees
are performing structured tasks.
• Directive leadership is likely to be redundant
among employees with high perceived ability or
with considerable experience.
• Employees with an internal locus of control will
be more satisfied with a participative style.
• James McGregor Burns first developed the ideas
of transactional and transformational
leadership.

• Bass in industry and Leithwood in schools have

popularized the concept of transformation
leadership and have developed frameworks and
measures that have led to a body of research
on transformational leadership.
 Transactional Leadership
• Transactional
– Traditional leadership
– Lower level of leadership
– Assists with organizational stability
• Occurs when leader and followers are in
an exchange-based relationship
– Goal is to meet the other party’s needs
• Relationship between leader and
follower tends to be transitory
– Effective only as long as relationship is
mutually beneficial
Characteristics of Transactional
Leaders
• Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards
for effort, promises rewards for good performance,
recognizes accomplishments
• Management by Exception (active): Watches and
searches for deviations from rules and standards,
takes corrective action
• Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes
only if standards are not met
• Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids
making decisions
 Transformational
Leadership
• Transformational Leadership
– Change agent
– Inspire change and innovation
– Potent and Complex
 Dimensions of
Transformational Leadership
• Idealized Influence:
– Provide a vision and a sense of mission
– Inspire and build trust and respect
• Individualized consideration:
– Exhibit considerate and supportive behavior directed toward
each individual subordinate; coach and advise
• Inspiration:
– Communicate high expectations
– Use symbols to focus efforts and enhance understanding of
goals
• Intellectual Stimulation:
– Promote innovative ways of viewing situations
– Stimulate intelligent problem solving and decision making
 Conclusions
•Idealized influence and inspirational leadership more
satisfying and effective than intellectual stimulation and
individualized consideration (Avoid, 1999; Bass, 1990).
•Transformational leaders receive higher ratings, are perceived
to lead more effective organizations, and have subordinates
that exert greater effort than transactional leaders (Yukl, 1998;
Bass, 1998).
•Transformational leadership in schools directly influences
teacher perceptions of student goal achievement, and student
grades (Leithwood, 1994).
 Primary Differences between
Transformational & Transactional
Leadership
• Transformational Leader • Transactional Leader
– Builds & instills vision – Leadership act does not
based on organizational
values bind leader and followers in
– Enjoys good relationships mutual and continuing
with subordinates pursuit of a higher purpose
• Leader contributes more
• Employees exert greater
efforts for leader
• Leaders and followers raise
one another to higher level
of motivation and morality
 Comparison of Transactional &
Transformational Leadership
Categories Transactional Transformational
Leader’s source Rank, position Character, competence
of power
Follower reaction Compliance Commitment

Time frame Short term Long term

Rewards Pay, promotion, etc. Pride, self-esteem, etc.

Supervision Important Less important

Counseling focus Evaluation Development

Where change occurs Follower behavior Follower attitude, values

Where “leadership” found Leader’s behavior Follower’s heart

 Conditions Ripe for Transformational
Leadership
Conditions
Crisis, Change, Instability, Mediocrity, Disenchantment
 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
• Modern development is attributed to
the work of ROBERT HOUSE.
 Charismatic Leadership
 Charismatic leaders have superior or
extraordinary leadership abilities and
foster attitudinal, behavioral and
emotional changes in their followers.
 Charismatics sway people and shape
the future by their sheer presence and
personality.
 Key Characteristics

 Ideological Vision  Environmental

 Self Confidence Sensitivity
 Personal Risk  Sensitivity to
 Confidence in Follower Needs
Subordinates
 Unconventional
 High Expectations
Behavior
 Personal Example
• MICHAEL JORDAN
How Charismatic Leaders
Influence Followers?
Articulate Vision

Communicates Expectations

Enhances self-confidence

Set example to Imitate

Demonstrate Courage & Conviction

 Ethical and Unethical
Characteristics of Charismatic
ETHICAL
Leader
UNETHICAL
 Uses power to serve others  Use power for personal
 Aligns vision with follower’s gains
needs and aspirations
 Learns from criticism
 Promotes own personal
 Two way communication vision
 Coaches, develops supports  Censures critical or
followers opposing views
 One way communication
Source: Jane M. Howell and  Insensitive to followers’
Bruce J.Avolio
needs
 Charismatic Model of Leadership
Individual and Effects on
Leader
Organizational followers and Outcomes
behavior
Characteristics work groups
• Traits •Leader •Increased •Personal
commitmen
• Organizational establishes a intrinsic
t to leader
vision motivation,
Culture and vision
achievement
orientation, and
goal pursuit
 ‘Substitute’ Theory of
Leadership
Substitutes
 Makes the leadership behavior
unnecessary and redundant.

Neutralizers
 Prevents the leader from behaving in
a certain way.
Substitutes and Neutralizers
for Leadership
Subordinate Impact on Leadership
Characteristics
Experience, ability, and Substitute for Task
training leadership

Professional orientation Substitute for task and

supportive leadership

Indifference to rewards Neutralizes instrumental

and supportive leadership
 Contd…
Task Characteristics Impact on Leadership

Structured and routine Substitute for Task

task leadership

Provides its own Substitute for Task

feedback leadership

Intrinsically satisfying Substitute for supportive

task leadership
 Contd…
Organization Impact on Leadership
Characteristics
Rigid rules and Substitute for Task
procedures leadership

Cohesive work groups Substitute for task and

supportive leadership

Formalization Substitute for Task

leadership
• All of these leadership theories need
more research to provide a better
understanding of the complexities
involved and to make the
applications to practice more
effective.