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Mathematical Proofs Chp2
Mathematical Proofs Chp2
2.1 Statements
2.2 The Negation of a Statement
2.3 The Disjunction and Conjunction of Statements
2.4 The Implication
2.5 More on Implications
2.6 The Biconditional
2.7 Tautologies and Contradictions
2.8 Logical Equivalence
2.9 Some Fundamental Properties of Logical Equivalence
2.10 Quantifies Statements
2.1 Statements
Questions:
Example: Is the integer 3 even?
Exclamatory:
Example: What a difficult problem!
Open Sentence
Example: Is the number x is an integer a statement?
An open sentence is a declarative sentence that satisfies the following
properties:
It contains one or more variables, each variable representing a
value in some prescribed set, called the domain of the variable;
It becomes a statement when values from their respective domain
are substituted for these variables.
Example: The open sentence x+4=10 is an open sentence. It is true
only when x=6.
Representation
An open sentence that contains a variable x is represented by P(x),
Q(x), or R(x).
If P(x) is an open sentence, where the domain of x is S, then we say
P(x) is an open sentence over the domain S. Here P(x) is a
statement for each x S.
Example: the open statement P(x): 0<x-3<5 over the domain Z is a true
statement when x {4, 5, 6, 7}, and it is a false statement
otherwise.
Truth Table
The possible true values of a statement are often given in a table,
called a true table.
Example: True table for P is
P , the truth table for Q is Q
T
T
F
F
The truth table for two statements P and Q is
P Q
T T
T F
F T
F F
What is the truth table for three statements P, Q and R?
In general, a truth table involving n statements contains 2n possible
combinations of truth values for these statements.
Q PQ
T T
F T
T T
F F
Conjunction of Statements
The conjunction of the statement P and Q is the statement: P and Q,
and is denoted by PQ.
Example: P1: The integer 4 is even. P2: The integer 10 is prime.
P1 P2: 4 is even and 10 is prime. It is false since at P2 is false.
P only if Q.
P is sufficient for Q.
Q is necessary for P.
Example
Example: Consider the open sentences P1: x=-2 and P2: |x|=2,
where x R. We can form the following open sentences.
P1(x): x-2.
P1 (x) P2(x): x=-2 or |x|=2.
P1 (x) P2(x): x=-2 and |x|=2.
P1(x) P2(x): If x=-2, then |x|=2.
For each given value of x R, the truth value of each resulting
statement can be determined.
P1(3) is true;
P1 (2) P2(2) is true;
P1 (2) P2(2) is false;
P1(x) P2(x) is true for all x R. Why?
Example
In general, the sentence P in the implication PQ is referred to as the
hypothesis or premise of PQ, while Q is called the conclusion of
PQ.
Example: Let S={2, 3, 5} and let P(n): n-1 is even, and Q(n): n+3 is
odd.
be open sentences over the domain S. Determine the truth or falseness
of the implication for each n S.
Solution: P(2)Q(2) is ?
P(3)Q(3) is ?
Example
For statements P and Q, it then follows that the biconditional P if and
only if Q is true only when P and Q have the same truth values.
Example: Consider the open sentences P1: x=-2 and P2: |x|=2,
where x R. P1(x) P2(x): If x=-2, then |x|=2.
Then P1(x) P2(x) is false when x=2, and is true for all other real
numbers x. Why?
Example:
Let P(x, y): |x|=|y| and Q(x, y):x=y, where (x, y) {(6, 6), (2, -2)}.
Solution: P(6, 6) is true and Q(6, 6) is true, so P(6, 6) Q(6, 6) is true;
P(2, -2) is true and Q(2, -2) is false, so P(2, -2) Q(2, -2) is false.
Contradictions
On the other hand, a compound statement S is called a contradiction if
it is false for all possible combination of truth values of the
component statements that are used to form S.
Example: P (P) and (P Q) (Q(P)) are both contradictions.
Verify them.
Indeed, if a compound statement is a tautology, then its negation S is
a contradiction.
If two (compound) statements R and S have the same truth values for
combinations of truth values of their component statements, then we
say that R and S are logically equivalent and indicate this by writing
R S.
Example: P Q (P) Q.
2. Associative Laws
(a) P (Q R) (P Q) R
(b) P (Q R) (P Q) R
3. Distributive Laws
(a) P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
(b) P (Q R) (P Q) (P R)
Theorem
4. De Morgans Laws
(P Q) ( P) ( Q)
(P Q) ( P) ( Q)
Universal Quantifier
This quantified statement is expressed in symbols by
x S, P(x)
and is expressed in words by
For every x S, P(x).
(1)
The quantified statement (1) is true if P(x) is true for every x S; while
the quantified statement (1) is false if P(x) is false for at least one
element x S.
Examples
Note that the quantified statement x S, P(x) can be expressed as
If x S, then P(x).
Example: x R, x20 can be expressed as
For every real number, x20.
or
If x is a real number, then x20.
Notices that x R, x20 is true since x20 is true for every real
number x.
Example: x R, x2>0 is false when x=0.
Existential Quantifier
Another way to convert an open sentence P(x) over a domain S into a
statement is by a quantifier called an existential quantifier.
Each of the phrases there exists, there is, for some, and for at least
one is referred to as an existential quantifier and is denoted by the
symbol .
This quantified statement is expressed in symbols by
x S, P(x)
and is expressed in words by
There exists x S such that P(x).
(1)
The quantified statement (1) is true if P(x) is true for at least one element x
S; while the quantified statement (1) is false if P(x) is false for all x S.
Examples
Example: x R, x2>0 is true, but x R, x2<0 false.
Generally, if we are considering an open sentence P(x) over a domain
S, then
(x S, P(x)) x S, P(x).
And
( x S, P(x)) x S, P(x).
Example: (x R, x20) x R, x2>0).
Example: ( x R, 3x=12) x R, 3x12.
Example
The statement
There exists a real number x such that x2=3.
Express this using a quantifier.
x R, x2=3.
Is it true or false?
True.
Express in word the negation of the statement.
For every real number x, x23.
Generalized Case
Let P(x, y) be an open sentence, where the domain of the variable x in
S and domain of the variable y is T. The quantified statement
For all x S and y T, P(x, y).
Can be expressed symbolically as
x S, y T, P(x, y).
The negation of the statement
(x S, y T, P(x, y)) x S, y T, P(x, y).
(1)