UNIT 2

Politics & Power Bases

 Politics is the art of using legitimate

power wisely.
It requires clear decision making,
assertiveness, accountability, and the
willingness to express ones own views.
It also requires being proactive rather
than reactive and demands
decisiveness.

 Power may be feared, worshipped, or

mistrusted.
It is frequently misunderstood.
Our first experience with power usually occurs
in the family unit.
Power, in most ordinary uses of the term,
appears to be more aligned with male than
with female stereotypes
(Marquis & Huston, 2014)

 Because childrens roles are likened to

later subordinate roles and the parental
power position is similar to
management, adult views of the
managementsubordinate relationship
are influenced by how power was used
in the family unit.

 Although power connotes strength and ability, the term

power has different meanings.
It can mean the ability to compel obedience, control, or
dominate;
or it can be a delegated right or privilege as occurs
in the power to enact the staff nurse role.
Power
can be defined as the capability of acting or producing
some sort of an effect, usually associated
with the ability to influence the allocation of scarce
resources. Other definitions identify power as the
potential capacity to exert influence, characteristically
backed by a means to coerce compliance.
A key element of power is its aspect of being potential
as well as actual.

Power
The capability of acting or producing some sort of
effect; the potential capacity to exert influence.
Relational Aspect of Power
Power is a property of a social relationship.
Dependency Aspect of Power
Power resides in the others dependency on the
powerful one.
Sanctioning Aspect of Power
Power is an active, direct manipulation of anothers
outcomes.
Empowerment
Giving individuals the authority, responsibility, and
freedom to act on what they know and instilling the
confidence to do so.

 Authority and Influence

Authority and influence are two major content

dimensions of power (Bacharach & Lawler, 1980).
There have been three conceptualizations of authority
and influence: (1) some authors equate these
terms; (2) others tend to equate power with influence
and assert that authority is a special case of
power; (3) still others view authority and influence
as distinctly different dimensions of power. Several
points of contrast are summarized in Table 12.1.

Influence Tactics
Kipnis and colleagues (1980) were among the first
to investigate the influence behavior of managers.
Content analysis led to the identification of 370

different forms of influence behavior, which were

condensed into 14 categories. Subsequently, factor
analysis brought about the following 8 forms of
influence behavior:
1. Assertiveness means expressing ones own
position to another without inhibiting the
rights of others.
2. Ingratiation means trying to make the other
person feel importantgiving praise or
sympathizing. Ingratiation is attempting to
advance oneself by trying to make another
person feel important.
3. Rationality means using logical and rational
arguments, providing pertinent information,
presenting reasons, and laying out an idea in
a logical, structured way.
4. Sanctions are threats. Positive sanctions, or
rewards, are addressed within motivation
mechanisms.
5. Exchange means that to persuade, an exchange
is offered; this is sometimes called scratching
each others back.

Upward appeal means going to a higher

authoritythe childhood threat of if you
dont play by my rules, I am going to go
tell Mom. Upward appeal simply means
taking the appeal to a higher authority to
arbitrate.
7. Blocking means deliberately keeping others
from getting their way, threatening to stop
working with them, ignoring them, not being
friendly, or simply attempting to make sure
others cannot accomplish their aims.
8. Coalitions are the result of a group of people
getting together to speak or negotiate as one
voice.

 Sources of Power
Individual Sources of Power

Although multiple mechanisms of power have been

identified, the most widely accepted power base classification
is French and Ravens (1959) five sources
of power. Their original conceptualization identified
the following five power sources (Box 12.1):
1. Reward
2. Coercive
3. Expert
4. Referent
5. Legitimate
When reward power is used, people comply because
doing so produces positive benefits. Coercive power
depends on fear. An individual reacts to the fear of the
negative consequences that might occur for failure
to comply. Referent power is based on admiration
for a person who has desirable resources or personal
traits. Legitimate power represents the power a
person receives as a result of his or her position in
the formal organizational hierarchy. Expert power
results from expertise, special skill, or knowledge.
The problem with the French and Raven typology is
that the list is not exhaustive and it ignores organizational
sources of power. Figure 12.1 shows a combined
conceptual framework for power that blends
elements of multiple theories of power.

 Other Sources of Power

Raven and Kruglanski (1975) and Hersey and
colleagues
(1979) identified two additional sources of
power: (1) connection power; and (2) information
power. A third type of power also has been
identified:
(3) group decision-making power (Liberatore
et al., 1989). These three other sources of power
are
related to groups and organizations specifically

 French and Ravens Five Sources of Power

Data from French, J., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150-167). Ann Arbor, MI:
University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.

1. Reward power is giving something of value. For example, in nursing, rewards may be a pay raise, praise,
a promotion, or a job on the day shift. Reward power is based on the ability to deliver desired rewards.
2. Coercive power is force against the will. For example, in nursing, coercive power can be the threat of firing, of
disciplinary action, or other negative consequences. Coercive power is the power derived from an ability to threaten
punishment and deliver penalties. It is a source of power used to apply pressure so that others will meet what is
demanded.
3. Expert power means the use of expertise. It is knowledge, competence, communication, and personal power all
combined in a reservoir of knowledge and experience. Expert power is a source of power held by those with some
special knowledge, skill, or competence in a particular area. For example, the nurse with the greatest expertise in
wound dressings will be sought out by other people in the work environment for this expertise. Expertise is an artful
combination of skill and knowledge. It may be founded on depth of knowledge and/or psychomotor skill. In the use
of knowledge and skill is power (i.e., because people need you or can benefit from your expertise, power exists).
Therefore the use of expertise can be structured to accomplish or influence movement or action toward certain goals.
4. Referent power is a little more difficult to understand because it is subtle. It is the use of charisma to influence
others. The followers of someone with referent power respond positively to the interpersonal communication
and image of the charismatic person. In organizations, this translates into an informal leadership based on liking,
charisma, or personal power. Referent power comes from the affinity other people have for someone. They admire
the personal qualities, the problem-solving ability, the style, or the dedication the person brings to the work.
Referent power can be viewed as an inspirational power, because peoples admiration for someone allows that
person to influence without having to offer rewards or threaten punishments. For example, in the political arena,
occasionally there are charismatic political figures or orators. Their influence comes from their followers liking
or identification with them. An example in nursing is Florence Nightingale, who became a symbol of professional
nursing. An emotional upsweep is felt by associating with a charismatic person. Referent power is a personal liking
and identification experienced by others. Followers attribute referent power to a leader on the basis of the leaders
personal characteristics and interpersonal appeal. Physical attractiveness may contribute to referent power.
5. Legitimate power means position power. It is the right to command within the organizational structure, based
on the hierarchical position held. The President of the United States has power because of holding the position.
Legitimate power is the most common source of power. It is what most often is called authority. The authority of
position gives the person the right to act, order, and direct others. However, leadership and influence need not be
confined to those with authority. Every person possesses the ability to tap different sources of power to use in a
variety of situations.

 The Power of the Subunit

Subunit or horizontal power pertains to relationships

across departments. Daft (2006) noted that
although each department makes a unique contribution
to organizational success, some contributions
are greater than others. Pfeffer (1981) identified the
following structural determinants of power within
organizations:

Power is derived from dependence. Simply

stated, power comes from having something

that someone else wants or needs and being
in control of the performance or resource so
that there are few, if any, alternative sources
for obtaining what is desired.
Power is derived from providing resources.

Organizations require a continuing provision

of resources such as personnel, money, customers,
and technology in order to continue
to function. Those subunits or individuals
within the organization that can provide the
most critical and difficult-to-obtain resources
come to have power in organizations. Their
power is derived from their ability to furnish
those resources upon which the organization
most depends.

Power is derived from coping with uncertainty.

Coping with uncertainty is a critical resource
in the organization since it ensures organizational
survival and adaptation to external
constraints.

Power is derived from being irreplaceable.

Members must not only provide a critical

resource for the organization but also prevent
themselves from being readily replaced
in that function. The degree of substitutability
is not a fixed thing, however, so one
might expect that various strategies will be
employed by individuals and subunits who
are interested in enhancing their power
within the organization. Some of these might
involve the availability of documentation,
use of specialized language, centralization of
knowledge, and maintenance of externallybased
sources of expertise.

Power is derived from the ability to affect the

decision process. Because decisions are made

in a sequential process, it is possible for an

individual to acquire power because of his or
her ability to affect the premises of basic values
or objectives used in making any decision.
A person can gain power by influencing
the information about the alternatives being
considered in the decision process.

Power is derived if there is a shared consensus

within the organizational subunit. If individuals

within a subunit share a common
perspective, set of values or definition of
the situation, they are likely to act and speak
in a consistent manner and present to the
larger organization an easily articulated and
understood position and perspective. Such
a consensus can serve to enhance the power
of the subunit among other organizational
members.

Gender
Women in power positions in todays
healthcare settings are more likely to
recognize their innate abilities that
support the effective use of power.
A positive or negative familial power
experience may greatly affect a persons
ability to deal with power systems in
adulthood.

 Sellers (1999) interviewed many of Fortune

magazines 50 most powerful women in
America and found that many of them
credited their powerful mothers in
developing their potential for leading
companies.
Gender and Power
Successful leaders are aware of their views
on the use and abuse of power.
Some women, in particular, may hold
negative connotations of power and never
learn to use power constructively.

 Women have traditionally demonstrated,

at best, ambivalence toward the concept
of power and until recently have openly
eschewed the pursuit of power.
This may have occurred because women
as a whole have been
socialized to view power differently than
men do.

 For some women, power may be viewed as

dominance versus submission; associated
with personal qualities, not accomplishment;
and dependent on personal or physical
attributes, not skill.
Many women may not believe they
inherently possess power but instead must
rely on others to acquire it.
Rather than feeling capable of achieving and
managing power, some women may feel that
power manages them.

 However, the historical view of women as less

powerful than men appears to be changing.
These changes are taking place within
women, in womens view of other women
holding power, in organizational hierarchies,
and among both male subordinates and male
colleagues
Today gender differences regarding power are
fading and the corporate world is beginning to
look at new ways for leaders to obtain and
handle power.

 Stahl (1999) maintains that nurse leaders in the

21st century will need to deal with
organizational power and politics in a
completely different way and will need to
develop political strategies for team building
and establishing trust Political skill in
developing consensus, inclusion, and
involvement are also needed, skills that have
often been linked to female characteristics (Carli,
1999; Fisher, 1999).

It is notable that these very attributes, which

once closed corporate doors and created a
glass ceiling, are now welcomed in the
boardroom.

These attributes are certainly not limited to

women; many male leaders also possess
these characteristics.
However, despite significant gains, many
women continue to remain unskilled in the
art of the political process.
While not all agree (Lips, 2000), many
recent studies show that how others view
men and women as being powerful has
gradually changed over the last 10 years.

 At present it is difficult to say with certainty

if the male or female is stereotypically
viewed as the more powerful in
organizations (Fisher, 1999; Ledet & Henley, 2000).
Types of Power
For leadership to be effective, some
measure of power must often support it.
This is true for the informal social group and
the formal work group.

 There are several bases, or sources, exist

for the exercise of power: reward power,
punishment or coercive power, legitimate
power, expert power, and referent power
Reward power is obtained by the ability to
grant favors or reward others with whatever
they value.
The arsenal of rewards that a manager can
dispense to get employees to work toward
meeting organizational goals is very broad.

 Positive leadership through rewards tends

to develop a great deal of loyalty and
devotion toward leaders.
Punishment or coercive power, the
opposite of reward power, is based on fear
of punishment if the managers
expectations are not met.
The manager may obtain compliance
through threats (often implied) of transfer,
layoff, demotion, or dismissal.

 The manager who shuns or ignores an

employee is exercising power through
punishment, as is the manager who
berates or belittles an employee
Legitimate power is position power.
Authority also is called legitimate power.
It is the power gained by a title or official
position within an organization.

 Legitimate power has inherent in it the

ability to create feelings of obligation or
responsibility.
As previously discussed, the socialization
and culture of subordinate employees will
influence to some degree how much power
a manager has due to his or her position.

 Expert power is gained through

knowledge, expertise, or experience.
Having critical knowledge allows a manager
to gain power over others who need that
knowledge.
This type of power is limited to a specialized
area.
For example, someone with vast expertise in
music would be powerful only in that area,
not in another specialization.

 Fralic (2000) feels that Florence Nightingale was

the first nurse to effectively use this expert power.
When Nightingale used research to quantify the
need for nurses in the Crimea (by showing that
when nurses were present, fewer soldiers died),
she was using her research to demonstrate
expertise in the health needs of the wounded.

Power derived from expert knowledge is

fundamental for any profession
(Hegyvary, 2003).

 Referent power is power a person has

because others identify with that leader or
with what that leader symbolizes.
Referent power also occurs when one gives
another person feelings of personal
acceptance or approval.
It may be obtained through association with
the powerful.
People also may develop referent power
because others perceive them as powerful.

 This perception could be based on

personal charisma, the way the leader
talks or acts, the organizations to which he
or she belongs, or the people with whom
he or she associates.
People others accept as role models or
leaders enjoy referent power.
Physicians use referent power very
effectively; society, as a whole, views
physicians as powerful, and they carefully
maintain this image.

 Informational power. This source of

power is obtained when people have
information that others must have to
accomplish their roles and functions or
tasks
Feminist power or self-power the
power a person gains over his or her own
lifeand maintains that this power is a
personal power that comes from maturity,
ego integration, security in relationships,
and confidence in ones impulse.

THE AUTHORITYPOWER GAP

If authority is the right to command, then
a logical question is, Why do workers
sometimes not follow orders?
The right to command does not ensure
that employees will always follow orders.
The gap that sometimes exists between a
position of authority and subordinate
response is called the authoritypower
gap.

 The term manager power may explain

subordinates response to the managers
authority.
The more power subordinates perceive a
manager to have, the smaller the gap
between the right to expect certain things
and the resulting fulfillment of those
expectations by others.

 The negative effect of a wide authority

power gap is that organizational chaos may
develop.
There would be little productivity if every
order were questioned.
The organization should rightfully expect
that its goals would be accomplished.
One of the core dynamics of civilization is
that there will always be a few authority
figures pushing the many for a certain
standard of performance.

 People in the United States are socialized

very early to respond to authority figures.
Children are conditioned to accept the
directives of their parents, teachers, and
community leaders.
The traditional nurseeducator has been
portrayed as an authoritarian who
demands unconditional obedience.

 Educators who maintain a very narrow

authoritypower gap reinforce dependency
and obedience by emphasizing the
ultimate calamitythe death of the
patient.
Thus, nursing students may be socialized
to be overly cautious and to hesitate when
making independent nursing judgments.

 Although the authoritypower gap

continues to be small, it has grown in the
last 20 years.
Both the womens movement and the
student unrest of the 1960s have
contributed to the widening of the
authoritypower gap.
This widening gap is evidenced when a
1970s college student asked her mother
why she did not protest as a college
student; the mother replied, I didnt know
we could.

Because of these types of early socialization, the gap

between the managers
authority and the workers response to that authority tends
to be relatively small. In
other countries, it may be larger or smaller, depending on
how people are socialized
to respond to authority. This authority dependence that
begins with our parents
and is later transferred to our employers may be an
important resource to managers.

 Political Power

With more than 2 million registered nurses in the

nation, the nursing profession should be a tremendous
force in political and public-policy debates.
The reality offers the nursing profession a formidable
power base that is largely untapped (Abood,
2007). Boswell and colleagues (2005) noted that,
more than ever, nurses need to be involved personally
and professionally in the political arena.
Increasingly, decisions that influence nursing and
health care are being made by politicians. All nurses
are touched by the impact of policy and politics
on health care and nursing practice, research, and
education. Thus it is essential that nursing become
involved in the political process. Barriers to political
activism are thought to include heavy workloads,
feelings of powerlessness, time constraints, gender
issues, and lack of understanding of a complex
political process (Boswell et al., 2005)

In a recent
article, Abood (2007) offered several strategies for
effective action in the legislative arenaentering the
legislative arena, understanding steps in the process,
understanding the power players, understanding
committees, and communicating with legislators.
Although today is an extremely turbulent time in
health care, it is also a time of tremendous opportunity
for the nursing profession. Nursing must accept
the legitimacy of power and take advantage of the
opportunity. Nursing curricula are an integral part
of ensuring that nurses are capable of taking on a
more active role in initiating and developing health
policy processes (Whitehead, 2003). Including the
concept of power in nursing curricula will better
prepare nurses to participate in social and political
decisions affecting health care. By creating dependency
through becoming irreplaceable, demonstrating
the ability to cope with uncertainty, and
participating in the political process, the nursing
profession will be able to establish its power base
and use that power to facilitate change in health care
organizations and the health care system.
As has always been the case, nurses derive their
core power from being the health care providers
whom the public most trusts. Caring generates
power in relationships, and nurses can nurture this
as a power source. Benner (1984) identified six types
of power exercised by nurses (Box 12.5). Benners
(1984) six types of nursing practicederived power
can be compared
to French and Ravens (1959) five
sources of power for individuals. For instance, transformational
and participative/affirmative nursing

practice power types would be similar to referent

power. Integrative, advocacy, healing, and problemsolving
types of power would be similar to expert
power. French and Ravens (1959) legitimate,
reward, and coercive power sources are more frequently
applied to nurses as care managers than to
nurses as care providers.
Individually, nurses can use power concepts
to establish a power base and gain power in their
work setting. For example, nurses can use information
and expertise to construct powerful, persuasive
arguments. Nurses can collect and analyze
data that can be strategically used or controlled. They
can be visible and persistent in goal pursuit.
They can be creative and challenge the system to
innovate. Nurses can use group power strategies
such as networking, connecting, and collaborating
to achieve professional goals.

1. Influence of money in politics and

health care Discussion
2. Influence of education in politics and
health - Discussion