Professional Documents
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Action Theories
Action Theories
S o ci o l o g ic a l
theory
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
S y m b o l i c i n t e r a c t i o n i s m l o o k s o n h o w w e c a n c re a t e t h e s o c i a l w o r l d t h ro u g h o u r
interactions.
G.H MEAD (1931) argues that:
U n l i ke a n i m a l s w h o s e b e h a v i o u r i s g o v e r n e d b y i n s t i n c t s , h u m a n s c a n re s p o n d t o t h e
w o r l d b y g i v i n g m e a n i n g s t o t h e t h i n g s t h a t a re i m p o r t a n t t o t h e m . S o t h e re i s a n
i n t e r p re t i v e p h a s e b e t w e e n a s t i m u l u s a n d o u r re s p o n s e s t o i t ( a s w e fi r s t h a v e t o
i n t e r p re t t h e m e a n i n g )
Fo r e x a m p l e , i f I s h a ke m y fi s t a t y o u , I a m u s i n g a s y m b o l t h a t h a s m a n y p o s s i b l e
m e a n i n g s , a n d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t i s g o i n g o n y o u m u s t i n t e r p re t t h e m e a n i n g o f t h i s
s y m b o l . Fo r e x a m p l e , a m I s h a k i n g m y fi s t a t y o u b e c a u s e I a m a n g r y o r b e c a u s e I a m
j o k i n g w i t h y o u ? W h e n y o u i n t e r p re t t h e s y m b o l , o n l y t h e n w i l l y o u k n o w h o w t o
re s p o n d .
A n i m a l s h o w e v e r , a s M e a d a r g u e d d o n o k n o w h o w t o i n t e r p re t a n o t h e r a n i m a l s a c t i o n s .
Fo r e x a m p l e , w h e n a d o g s n a r l s a t a n o t h e r d o g , t h e o t h e r d o n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y a d o p t s a
d e f e n s i v e p o s t u re ( i t c a n n o t i n t e r p re t t h e m e a n i n g s o r w a y s t o re s p o n d , b e c a u s e i t s
re s p o n s e i s i m m e d i a t e .
S o a l l t h i s i s b a s i c a l l y s a y i n g t h a t w e c re a t e t h e s o c i a l w o r l d t h ro u g h o u r i n t e r a c t i o n s .
H o w e v e r , w e c a n i n t e r p re t o t h e r p e o p l e s m e a n i n g s b y t a k i n g t h e i r ro l e i . e . p u t t i n g
o u r s e l v e s i n t h e i r p o s i t i o n . T h i s a b i l i t y d e v e l o p s i n t e r a c t i o n . We fi r s t d o t h i s a s
c h i l d re n , t h ro u g h i m i t a t i v e p l a y w h e n w e t a ke o n t h e ro l e o f o u r p a re n t s a n d t h e n l a t e r
in life, we see the world as they saw it (as we put ourselves in their position) so we
HERBERT BLUMER
Blumer developed Meads interactionism: and stated
that our actions are based on the meanings that we
give to situations. Unlike animals, our actions are not
based on automatic responses to stimuli.
Blumers view of human conduct contrasts strongly
with Functionalism. Functionalist see individuals as
puppets (controlled by society) who passively respond
to the systems needs. By contrast, Blumer argues that
there is always room for choice and how we want to
perform certain roles (we can be active, as not all are
passive)
LABELLING THEORY
T h re e i n t e r a c t i o n i s t i d e a s t h a t u n d e r p i n t h e l a b e l l i n g t h e o r y:
T h e d e fi n i t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n : T h o m a s ( 1 9 6 6 ) a rg u e d t h a t i f p e o p l e d e fi n e
a s i t u a t i o n a s re a l , t h e n i t w i l l o n l y h a v e re a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h a t i s , i f w e
b e l i e v e s o m e t h i n g t o b e t r u e , t h e n t h i s b e l i e f w i l l a ff e c t h o w w e a c t . Fo r
ex a m p l e , i f a t e a c h e r l a b e l s a b o y a s a t ro u b l e m a ke r t h e n t h i s t e a c h e r w i l l b e
l i ke l y t o a c t d i ff e re n t l y t o w a rd s t h e m e . g . t re a t t h e m m o re h a r s h e r.
T h e l o o k i n g - c l a s s s e l f: C o o l e y ( 1 9 2 2 ) a rg u e s t h a t o u r s e l f- c o n c e p t c o m e s f ro m
o u r a b i l i t y t o t a ke o u t t h e ro l e o f t h e o t h e r. I n i n t e r a c t i o n s , b y t a k i n g t h e ro l e
of the other, we come to see ourselves as they see us. When we look in the
m i rro r , w e s e e o u r s e l v e s a s o t h e r p e o p l e s e e u s . T h ro u g h t h i s , s e l f- f u l fi l l i n g
p ro p h e c y o c c u r s w h e n w e b e c o m e w h a t o t h e r p e o p l e s e e u s a s .
C a re e r: B e c ke r a n d Le m e r t a p p l y t h i s c o n c e p t t o m e n t a l p e o p l e . I f s o m e o n e i s
d e fi n e d a s a m e n t a l p a t i e n t t h e n t h i s l a b e l w i l l o v e rr i d e a n y o t h e r p o s i t i v e
label that they have e.g. as good mothers and this label as a mental patient
w o u l d b e c o m e t h e i r m a s t e r s t a t u s l e a d i n g t o s e l f- f u l fi l l i n g p ro p h e c y.
Labelling theorist fail to establish what causes people to label others and also
i g n o re w i d e r s o c i a l s t r u c t u re s s u c h a s i n e q u a l i t i e s e t c .
GOFFMANS DRAMATURGICAL
MODEL
Goff mans dramaturgical model describes how we can
actively construct ourselves by manipulating other
peoples impressions of us, such as through acting.
Two key dramaturgical concepts are
presentations of self we can present a certain image
others, thereby controlling the way we appear to others
impression management includes tone of voice,
gestures and props e.g. in a theatre there is a front
stage where we act our our roles and a back stage
where we can step out of our role.
Also, teachers put on a front stage behaviour in
classrooms as professionals and in the staff room they
PHENOMENOLOGY
H u s s e r l a r g u e s t h a t t h e w o r l d o n l y m a ke s s e n s e t o u s b e c a u s e w e i m p o s e m e a n i n g s a n d
order on it by c onstructing mental categories. Schutz applies this idea to the social
world.
H e c a l l s t h i s t y p i fi c a t i o n s ( a l l o w s u s t o o r g a n i s e o u r e x p e r i e n c e s i n t o a s h a r e d w o r l d o f
m e a n i n g ) . T h e m e a n i n g o f a n a c t i o n v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t . Fo r e x a m p l e ,
p u t t i n g y o u r h a n d u p m e a n s t w o d i ff e r e n t t h i n g s a t a n a u c t i o n a n d i n a c l a s s ro o m .
Fo r t u n a t e l y , t y p i fi c a t i o n s m a ke s o c i a l o r d e r p o s s i b l e , b e c a u s e t h e y g i v e m e m b e r s o f
s o c i e t y a s h a r e d l i f e w o r l d o f c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w l e d g e t h a t w e c a n u s e t o m a ke s e n s e o f
o u r e x p e r i e n c e s . S c h u t z c a l l s t h i s r e c i p e k n o w l e d g e . L i ke a r e c i p e w e c a n f o l l o w i t
w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g t o o m u c h , u s i n g i t t o m a ke s e n s e o f t h e e v e r y d a y w o r l d .
T h e s o c i a l w o r l d i s a n i n t e r- s u b j e c t i v e o n e t h a t e x i s t s o n l y w h e n w e a l l s h a r e t h e s a m e
meanings.
T he fac t t hat s oc i e ty ap p e ar s to us as a re al an d o bj e c ti ve th i ng sh ows th at al l m e m be rs
o f s oc i e ty sh are th e s am e m e an i ng s . Thi s al l ows u s to c oop e rate an d ac h i e ve ou r g oal s.
B e rge r an d Lu c k m an n re j e c t the vi e w th at re al i ty i s a so c i al c ons tr uc t. Onc e c on s tr uc te d ,
i t t a ke s o n a l i f e o f i t s o w n a n d b e c o m e a n e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y t h a t s h a p e s o u r l i v e s .
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
L i ke p h e n o m e n o l o g i s t s , e t h n o m e t h o d o l o g i s t s a l s o re j e c t t h e i d e a o f a s o c i e t y
ex i s t i n g o u t t h e re t h a t s h a p e s o u r b e h a v i o u r.
G a r fi n ke l a rg u e s t h a t s o c i a l o rd e r i s c re a t e d f ro m t h e b o t t o m u p . I t i s
something members of society actively construct in everyday life using
commonsensical knowledge.
T h e s o c i o l o g i s t s t a s k i s t o t h e re f o re u n c o v e r t h e t a ke n - f o r- g r a n t e d r u l e s p e o p l e
u s e t o c o n s t r u c t s o c i a l re a l i t y.
I n d e x i c a l i t y : m e a n i n g s m a y s o m e t i m e s n o t b e c l e a r. T h i s i s a t h re a t t o s o c i a l
o rd e r , b e c a u s e m e a n i n g s a re u n c l e a r a n d c o o p e r a t i o n b e c o m e s d i ffi c u l t .
Re fl ex i v i t y: i s t h e u s e o f c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w l e d g e t o c o n s t r u c t a s e n s e o f
m e a n i n g a n d o rd e r , s o t h a t i n d ex i c a l i t y c a n b e p re v e n t e d .
L a n g u a g e i s i m p o r t a n t i n a c h i e v i n g re fl ex i v i t y. I t g i v e s u s a s e n s e o f re a l i t y.
G a r fi n ke l u s e d b re a c h i n g ex p e r i m e n t s t o d i s r u p t p e o p l e s ex p e c t a t i o n s o f a
s i t u a t i o n . Fo r ex a m p l e , s t u d e n t s b e h a v i n g l i ke l o d g e r s i n t h e i r p a re n t s h o m e .
T h e s e s h o w h o w t h e o rd e r l i n e s s o f e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n s i s n o t i n e v i t a b l e a n d h o w
w e c a n u s e o f c o m m o n s e n s e k n o w l e d g e t o c re a t e a s o c i a l o rd e r.