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Chapter2 PhysicalLayer
Chapter2 PhysicalLayer
Properties of media
Wires, fiber optics, wireless
Fundamental limits
Nyquist, Shannon
Satellite Communication
Public Switched Telephone Network
Mobile Telephone System
Cable Television
Signal
10110
Transmission medium
Media propagate signals that carry bits of information
Media have different properties, hence performance
Reality check (Storage media)
Send data on tape / disk / DVD for a high bandwidth link
Mail one box with 1000 800GB tapes (6400 Tbit)
Takes one day to send (86,400 secs)
Data rate is 70 Gbps.
Data rate is faster than long-distance networks!
But, the message delay is very poor.
Transmission medium
Link Terminology
Full-duplex link
Used for transmission in both directions at once
e.g., use different twisted pairs for each direction
Half-duplex link
Both directions, but not at the same time
e.g., senders take turns on a wireless channel
Simplex link
Only one fixed direction at all times; not common
Guided Transmission
Signals propagate in solid media: copper, fiber
Wires:
Twisted pairs
Coaxial cable
Power lines
Fiber cables
UTP
STP
Physical Media
BNC connector
Category
Impedance
Use
RG-59
75
Cable TV
RG-58
50
Thin Ethernet
RG-11
50
Thick Ethernet
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
Fiber Cables
Common for high rates and long distances
Long distance ISP links, Fiber-to-the-Home
Light carried in very long, thin strand of glass
Light source
(LED, laser)
Light trapped by
total internal reflection
Photodetector
Physical Media
Connectors (most-common)
SC (simplex and duplex singlemode)
FC (simplex single and multimode) LC simplex and duplex
LC (simplex and duplex, single and multimode)
FDDI (duplex, mulitomode)
FC
FDDI
Fiber Attentuation
Fiber has enormous bandwidth (THz) and tiny signal
loss hence high rates over long distances
Wires
Fiber
Distance
Short (100s of m)
Bandwidth
Moderate
Very High
Cost
Inexpensive
Less cheap
Convenience
Easy to use
Less easy
Security
Easy to tap
Hard to tap
Unguided Transmission
Signals propagate freely through air
Terrestrial (wireless)
radiowaves,
microwaves,
infrared,
lasers
Satellites
Wireless Transmission
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio Transmission
Microwave Transmission
Light Transmission
Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber
Wireless
Sender radiates signal over a region
Wireless
Indoor: 10 50m: BlueTooth, WLAN
Short range Outdoor: 50 200m: WLAN
Mid Range Outdoor: 200m 5 Km: GSM, CDMA,
WLAN Point-to-Point, Wi-Max
Long Range Outdoor: 5 Km 100 Km: Microwave
Point-to-Point
Long Distance Communication: Across Continents:
Satellite Communication
3 GHz
30 GHz
802.11
b/g/n
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802.11a/g/n
Propagation methods
Frequency bands
Band
Range
Propagation
Application
VLF
330 KHz
Ground
LF
30300 KHz
Ground
MF
Sky
AM radio
HF
330 MHz
Sky
VHF
30300 MHz
Sky and
line-of-sight
VHF TV,
FM radio
UHF
Line-of-sight
SHF
330 GHz
Line-of-sight
Satellite communication
EHF
30300 GHz
Line-of-sight
Radio Transmission
Radio signals penetrate buildings well and propagate for long
distances with path loss
In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves In the HF band, radio waves bounce off
follow the curvature of the earth
the ionosphere.
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Microwave Transmission
Microwaves have much bandwidth and are widely used
indoors (WiFi) and outdoors (3G, satellites, long ditance
telephone systems)
Signal is attenuated/reflected by everyday objects
Strength varies with mobility due multipath fading, etc.
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Light Transmission
Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links
Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth
Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors
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Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
Doesnt readily support mobility or broadcast
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Communication Satellites
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Kinds of Satellites
Satellites and their properties vary by altitude:
Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO),
and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)
Sats needed for
global coverage
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Geostationary Satellites
GEO satellites orbit 35,000 km above a fixed location
VSAT (computers) can communicate with the help of a hub
Different bands (L, S, C, Ku, Ka) in the GHz are in use but may be
crowded or susceptible to rain.
GEO satellite
VSAT
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Band
DL
UL
BW
Problems
1.5 GHz
1.6
GHz
15 MHz
Low bandwidth;
crowded
1.9 GHz
2.2
GHz
70 MHz
Low bandwidth;
crowded
4.0 GHz
6.0
GHz
500 MHz
Terrestrial
interference
Ku
11 GHz
Ka
20 GHz
30 GHz
3500
MHz
Rain
Rain, equipment
cost
LEO relaying
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Fiber:
+ Enormous bandwidth over long distances
Installation can be more expensive/difficult
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Signals
Fourier analysis
Bandwidth-limited signals
Maximum data rate of a channel
Signals
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals.
Analog Signals
Sine Wave
Peak
amplitude
Fourier Analysis
A time-varying signal can be equivalently represented as a
series of frequency components (harmonics):
=
Signal over time
a, b weights of harmonics
Bandwidth
Range of frequency components that can be satisfactorily
transmitted by the channel (medium)
Bandwidth-Limited Signals
Digital signal is a composite signal with an infinite bandwidth
Having less bandwidth (harmonics) degrades the signal
8 harmonics
Lost!
Bandwidth
4 harmonics
Lost!
2 harmonics
Lost!
Harmonic
1
Harmonics
1, 3
Harmonics
1, 3, 5
Harmonics
1, 3, 5, 7
1 Kbps
500 Hz
2 KHz
4.5 KHz
8 KHz
10 Kbps
5 KHz
20 KHz
45 KHz
80 KHz
100 Kbps
50 KHz
200 KHz
450 KHz
800 KHz
R= fs log2V bits/sec
Example
A voice-grade link with cut.off frequency 3000Hz;
Transmission Impairment
Attenuation
Noise
Delay
Distortion
Attenuation
1. The signal is attenuated (goes for m to km)
2. Frequencies above a cutoff are highly attenuated
Delay
The signal is delayed (propagates at c in wires)
propagation delay
Propagation delay: time for bits to propagate across the wire
P-delay = Length / speed of signals = Length / c = D
seconds
L = M/R + D
Noise
Noise is added to the signal (later, causes errors)
Shannon Capacity
How many levels we can distinguish depends on
S/N
SNRdB = 10log10(S/N)
S+N
0
1
2
3
Distortion
Distance
Example (1)
1. A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1
ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:
Pulse Rate = 1/ 10-3= 1000 pulses/s
Bit Rate = PulseRate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 4 = 2000 bps
2. We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal
levels.
6 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 L L = 8
Example (2)
3. Determine the minimum signal-to-noise ratio (in dB) that
can be tolerated in order to reliably transmit a digital bit
stream at a rate of 1.544 Mbps over a 96 kHz band-limited
channel.
4. You race against the same channel carrying one full 8 GB
DVD. You drive your car at average speed of 60km/h. The
same amount of data is transmitted over the channel. The
last bit sent over the channel arrives to the destination
together with you. What is the length of the wire?
Modulation
Digital modulation
Baseband transmission
Passband transmission
Signal
10110
10110
Digital Modulation
Modulation schemes send bits as signals.
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Baseband Transmission
Line codes send symbols that represent one or more bits
NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=1, -1V=0)
Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal transitions
Bandwidth Efficiency
Strategies:
use more than two signaling levels - Multilevel Schemes
increase the number of data bits per symbol thereby
increasing the bit rate
2B1Q:
4B3T:
MLT-3:
Clock Recovery
To decode the symbols, signals need sufficient transitions
Otherwise long runs of 0s (or 1s) are confusing, e.g.:
1
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0 um, 0? er, 0?
Code
11110
01001
10100
10101
Data
0100
0101
0110
0111
Code
01010
01011
01110
01111
Data
1000
1001
1010
1011
Code
10010
10011
10110
10111
Data
1100
1101
1110
1111
Code
11010
11011
11100
11101
DC component
Strategies:
Passband Transmission
Modulating the amplitude, frequency/phase of a carrier
signal sends bits in a (non-zero) frequency range.
Carrier is simply a signal oscillating at a desired
frequency:
ASK
bit rate=baud rate
Solution
In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The baud rate is
therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a minimum bandwidth
equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth is
2000 Hz.
Solution
For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is:
BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each
band: fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
FSK
FSK examples
1. Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal transmitting at 2000 bps.
Transmission is in half-duplex mode, and the carriers are separated by
3000 Hz.
Solution
For FSK:
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
BW = bit rate + fc1 - fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz
2. Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth of the
medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the two carriers is 2000
Hz. Transmission is in full-duplex mode.
Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is allocated for each
direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
Baud rate = BW - (fc1 - fc0 ) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit rate is 4000
PSK
4-PSK, 8-PSK
4-PSK:
8-PSK:
PSK example
1. Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at
2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.
Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, but in
4-PSK the bit rate is 2 times the baud rate, so the baud rate
is 4,000 bps. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth is 4000 Hz.
2. Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?
Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which
means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit rate is 3
times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.
QPSK; QAM
Constellation diagrams are a shorthand to capture the
amplitude and phase modulations of symbols:
BPSK
2 symbols
1 bit/symbol
QPSK
4 symbols
2 bits/symbol
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QAM-16
16 symbols
4 bits/symbol
QAM-64
64 symbols
6 bits/symbol
Gray-code
Gray-coding assigns bits to symbols so that small symbol
errors cause few bit errors:
B
E
A
D
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Units
Bits/Baud
Baud rate
Bit Rate
Bit
4-PSK, 4-QAM
Dibit
2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM
Tribit
3N
16-QAM
Quadbit
4N
32-QAM
Pentabit
5N
64-QAM
Hexabit
6N
128-QAM
Septabit
7N
256-QAM
Octabit
8N
Examples
1. A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced
points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?
Solution
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees
apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with each signal
unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
2. Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.
Solution
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since: log2 64 = 6.
Thus, 72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud
Multiplexing
Multiplexing schemes share a channel among users.
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FDM process
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Example (1)
1. Five channels, each with a 100-KHz bandwidth, are to be
FDM multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of
10 KHz between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least:
5 x 100 + 4 x 10 = 540 KHz
Example (2)
2. Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps,
use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate
configuration using FDM
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-KHz bandwidth. Each
digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4 bits
are modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM modulation.
Figure 6.8 shows one possible configuration.
OFDM
OFDM (Orthogonal FDM) is an efficient FDM technique
used for 802.11, 4G cellular and other communications
Subcarriers are coordinated to be tightly packed
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Example (1)
1. Four 1-Kbps connections are TDM multiplexed together. A
unit is 1 bit. Find (1) the duration of 1 bit before
multiplexing, (2) the transmission rate of the link, (3) the
duration of a time slot, and (4) the duration of a frame?
Solution
1. The duration of 1 bit is 1/1 Kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
2. The rate of the link is 4 Kbps.
3. The duration of each time slot 1/4 ms or 250 ms.
4. The duration of a frame 1 ms.
Example (2)
2. A multiplexer combines four 100-Kbps channels using a
time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?
Solution
Figure shows the output for four arbitrary inputs.
Transmitted
Signal
+1
+1
-1
-1
+2
B=
+1 +1
-1 -1
Receiver Decoding
S x A +2+2
0
SxB
-2 -2
Sum = 4
A sent 1
Sum = -4
B sent 0
-2
C=
+1
+1
-1 -1
S = +A -B
S x C +2
0
0
-2
Sum = 0
C didnt send
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Example (1)
1. Below are shown the binary chip sequences assigned to
four example stations in binary and bipolar notation:
A: (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1); B: (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1);
C: (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1); D: (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1)
Station A wants to send binary 1, station B binary 0, station C
wants to stay silent and station D wants to send binary 1. Show
the resultant chip sequence in bipolar notation.
Solution
A sends: (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1); B sends (+1 -1 +1 -1 -1 -1 +1
+1); C sends (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0); D sends (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1).
The resulting sequence is S=A+B+C+D= (-1 -1 +1 -3 -1 -1 +3
-1).
Example (2)
2. If the CDMA receiver gets the following chips: (-1 +3 -1 -1 -1
+1 -1 -3) which stations of the above four transmitted and
which bits did each one send?
Solution
SA/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1)/8 =
(+1 -3 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1 +3)/8=0
SB/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1)/8 =
(+1 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +3)/8=1
SC/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1)/8 =
(+1 -3 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -3)/8=-1
SD/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1)/8 =
(+1 +3 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +3)/8=1
B and D sent 1 bits, C sent a 0 bit, and A was silent.
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OFDM is used up to
1.1 MHz for ADSL2
Most bandwidth down
QAM modulation
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Rate
(Mbps)
Voice
Channels
E Line
Rate
(Mbps)
Voice
Channels
T-1
1.544
24
E-1
2.048
30
T-2
6.312
96
E-2
8.448
120
T-3
44.736
672
E-3
34.368
480
T-4
274.176
4032
E-4
139.264
1920
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Switching (1)
PSTN uses circuit switching; Internet uses packet switching
PSTN:
Internet:
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Switching (2)
Circuit switching requires
call setup (connection)
before data flows smoothly
Also teardown at end
(not shown)
Packet switching treats
messages independently
No setup, but variable
queuing delay at routers
Circuits
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Packets
Switching (3)
Comparison of circuit- and packet-switched networks
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Problems
1. A simple telephone system consists of two end offices and a
single toll office to which each end office is connected by a
1-MHz full-duplex trunk. The average telephone is used to
make four calls per 8-hour workday. The mean call duration
is 6 min. Ten percent of the calls are long distance (i.e., pass
through the toll office). What is the maximum number of
telephones an end office can support? (Assume 4 kHz per
circuit.) Explain why a telephone company may decide to
support a lesser number of telephones than this maximum
number at the end office.
Problems
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Internet
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Cable Television
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ISP
(Internet)
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Spectrum Allocation
Upstream and downstream data are allocated to
frequency channels not used for TV channels:
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Cable Modems
Cable modems at customer premises implement the
physical layer of the DOCSIS standard
QPSK/QAM is used in timeslots on frequencies that
are assigned for upstream/downstream data
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ADSL:
+ Bandwidth is dedicated for
each customer
+ Point-to-point link does not
broadcast data
Uses twisted pair to
customers (lower bandwidth)
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End
Chapter 2
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