Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Physical Conversion Technologies
Physical Conversion Technologies
Technologies
(Assistant Professor)
Chemical, Polymer & Composite Materials Engg. Deptt.
UET, KSK, Lahore.
CONTENT
Introduction
Preprocessing Techniques
Pretreatment Techniques
Briquetting Technologies
Pelletizing Technologies
Performance Comparison
2
INTRODUCTION
Challenges of waste agricultural biomass to
energy conversion technologies
Inherent uneven and troublesome characteristics of
the materials.
Technology should address the followings:
Low bulk density,
Variable and often high moisture content,
Combustibility,
Affinity to spoilage and infestation
Geographically dispersed and varied material,
Seasonal variations in yield and maturity,
A short window of opportunity for harvest and demands on
labor and machines that often conflict with main crop (grain),
Local regulations that put limits on utilization, storage,
3
transportation and emissions.
INTRODUCTION
Technological options for improvements
Before end-use energy applications, WAB materials
have to convert into some improved secondary forms.
This basic process of upgrading into a variety of
convenient secondary fuels is known as beneficiation.
BENEFICIATION
Drying
Dewatering
Sizing
Densification
Separation
Baling
Pelletization
Briquetting
Torrefaction
INTRODUCTION
Densification
WAB materials usually take many shapes and sizes,
while a particular biomass energy conversion
technology (feeding system, conversion reactor and
the conversion process itself) usually could accept a
specific range of physical forms.
Deviations from the design features could lead to not
only fuel handling and maintenance issues but also
considerable reduction in energy conversion
efficiencies.
Densification is one of the effective ways of managing
the above issues, in which compaction and
agglomeration of particles occur under pressure.
5
INTRODUCTION
Densification
Because of their uniform shape and size, densified
products may be easily handled using standard
handling and storage equipment, and they can be
easily adopted in direct-combustion, gasification,
pyrolysis, and utilized in biochemical conversions.
INTRODUCTION
Densification
The process for biomass densification can be
classified mainly into baling, pelletization, and
briquetting.
Bales are a traditional method of densification
commonly used to harvest crops. A bale is formed
using farm machinery (called a baler) that compresses
the chop.
Briquetting and pelletization are the most common
processes used for biomass densification for solid
fuel applications.
These processes can increase the bulk density of
WAB material from an initial bulk density of 40-200
kg/m3 to a final compact density of 600-1200 kg/m3.
INTRODUCTION
Densification
Bales
Briquett
es
Pellets
8
INTRODUCTION
Densification
The most common raw materials used in densification
of WAB in include
Wood processing residues, mainly sawdust,
Loose crop residues such as rice husk, coffee husk, tamarind
seeds, tobacco stems, coir pith and spice waste, and
Charcoal fines.
INTRODUCTION
Densification
Advantages:
INTRODUCTION
Densification
Despite of the significant benefits of densification of
WAB, widespread dissemination and usage of the
technology is hindered by number of issues:
High investment cost and process energy requirements,
Undesirable combustion characteristics such as poor
ignitability and smoking due to use of improper process
parameters and lack of process quality control, and
Tendency of the densified products to loosen when exposed
to water or even high humidity weather.
11
INTRODUCTION
Densification experience in Asia
Initial introduction of densification process for WAB
materials showed limited success due to several
issues such as:
Mismatch of technology, raw material supply and prospective
markets,
Complexity of the technology and the lack of knowledge to
adapt the technology to suit local conditions,
Excessive operating costs, especially associated with the
electricity usage and regular maintenance requirements,
Lack of institutional framework for the information
management (i.e. accumulation and exchange of experiences
in briquette / pellet production in conjunction with advances
in briquetting technology)
12
INTRODUCTION
Densification experience in Asia
The most common raw materials used in biomass
densification in Asia include sawdust, rice husk,
coffee husk, tamarind seeds, tea dust, tobacco stems,
coir pith and spice waste.
Sawdust is the dominant raw material in Malaysia,
Philippines, Thailand and Korea,
Rice husk is the main raw material used in Bangladesh.
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Main processes
Main preprocessing operations of WAB materials
include sizing (or size reduction), separation (or
sieving) and moisture removal.
Size reduction and separation processes are aimed at
obtaining more uniform and pre-determined particle
size distribution required for optimum operational
performance of the subsequent stage of the
densification process.
Moisture removal is an essential unit operation in
WAB to energy conversion processes, as most of the
raw forms of materials contain excessively high
moisture content, resulting many undesirable
characteristics.
14
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Size reduction consists of breaking or cutting a solid
biomass to smaller pieces.
Cutting mostly involves shearing action, whereas breaking
involves some degree of impact and attrition (friction).
Depending on the material type and application, size
reduction is achieved by one or more steps; eg. chopping
(coarse materials) followed by grinding (fine materials).
15
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Size reduction consists of breaking or cutting a solid
biomass to smaller pieces.
Cutting mostly involves shearing action, whereas breaking
involves some degree of impact and attrition (friction).
Depending on the material type and application, size
reduction is achieved by one or more steps; eg. chopping
(coarse materials) followed by grinding (fine materials).
Upper feed
roller
Moving
blades
Biomass
material in
Swinging
hammer
Biomass
material in
Lower
feed rollerStationary
bottom blades
Ground
particles out
Peripheral
screen
16
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
As size reduction is an energy intensive unit
operation, it is important to have information on
specific energy consumption a given technology.
In general, energy consumption of sizing of biomass
materials depends on initial particle size, moisture
content, material properties, feed rate of the material
and machine variables.
In particular, the energy required to grind or chop
biomass increases exponentially as desired particle
size decreases.
Since some conversion processes require small
biomass particles, size reduction technology must
reduce energy requirements and subsequent cost.
17
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Size reduction equipment can also be further
categorized as primary and secondary types.
Typically, primary reduction equipment is selected to
maximize the amount of processed materials in the desired
size range, while minimizing fines.
Secondary type provides a ground product of greater
uniformity in sizing.
18
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Types of equipment:
19
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Shredders
The shredders or choppers are mainly used with stalk forage,
such as rice straw, wheat straw and maize stover.
Biomass needs to be chopped with a chopper (rotary shear
shredder)/ knife mill/ tub grinder to accommodate bulk flow
and uniformity of feed rate.
20
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Shredders
A chopper, knife cutter, or knife mill is often used for coarse
size reduction (>50 mm) of stalk, straw, and grass feed
stocks.
According to the mode of cutting, choppers can be divided
into cylinder or flywheel types. Large and medium size
choppers are generally flywheel types, but the majority of
small choppers are cylinder type.
21
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Hammer Mill
Hammer mills consist of rotating shafts with fixed or swing
hammers are attached to them.
The material is fed into a hammer mill from the top and by
gravity falls into the grinding chamber.
The material is contacted by a series of swinging hammers.
22
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Size reduction
Specific Energy Consumption
For a given equipment, SEC is determined critically by the
factors such as properties of the biomass material, feeding or
operating speed, moisture content, initial particle size and
final particle size.
Specific energy consumption of WAB in hammer milling (in kWh/t)
Biomass Material
Wheat straw
Maize stover
Switchgrass
Moisture content
(% on wet basis)
0.8
1.6
3.2
8
12
8
12
8
12
51.0
45.3
21.1
34.2
63.4
56.6
37.5
43.5
16.2
19.7
50.2
58.4
10.7
24.2
6.3
11.1
23.9
26.9
23
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Separation
The raw forms of WAB materials are often
contaminated with items such as sand particles, soil,
stones, metal particles and other foreign materials.
Presence of such contaminants could damage or increase the
wear of machinery. An increased wear of machinery, in turn,
creates a growth of contaminants, thereby intensifying the
effects.
24
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Separation
Sieves or screens are used for the separation of
particles according to their sizes (segregation or
classification) or for the production of closely graded
materials.
25
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Separation
The screens are vibrated by means of a mechanical
system. The screen is usually inclined at an angle to
the horizontal; multiple screens are also used.
26
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Drying and Dewatering
Moisture content of WAB is one of the main factors
affecting the performance of densification processes.
The quality of densified products and successful
operation of the machines is highly sensitive to the
moisture content, which preferably should be <15%.
Typically, moisture content has to be reduced up to
this level following the size reduction, for which a
dryer is normally used.
Drying equipment may possibly be eliminated due to
the lower moisture content of many WAB materials,
such as rice husk, coffee husk and groundnut shells.
In contrast, drying is essential for sawdust, wet coir
pith, bagasse, bagasse pith, mustard stalk, etc.
27
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Drying and Dewatering
Removal of moisture in the WAB materials needs
energy and therefore increases the pre-processing
energy requirement.
If heat for the dryer is recovered from a waste heat
source, energy efficiency could be improved.
Wet biomass materials containing considerably high
moisture content can be dewatered prior to drying.
This process refers to the removal of portion of the
moisture in the feedstock in liquid phase.
Whereas in drying process, the moisture is removed as
vapor.
Overall energy efficiency can often be improved by
dewatering wet feed stocks prior to thermal drying.
28
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Drying and Dewatering
Basic dewatering technologies include:
Open air storage,
Filters,
Presses,
Screening devices,
Centrifuges,
Hydro cyclones extrusion and expression process
29
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Drying and Dewatering
Drying is another essential pre-treatment process
required in biomass energy conversion systems.
There are many types of dryers that could be used to
dry biomass materials, which could be classified as
Classification
Alternatives
Drying media (i.e. the stream passing Flue gas, hot air or superheated steam
through the material to be dried)
Method of heat transfer
Direct- or indirect-fired
Heat transfer media
Pressure
30
PREPROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Drying and Dewatering
Eg: Pneumatic dryer
31
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Main processes
Pretreatment of biomass improves the binding
characteristics of biomass that is low in lignin content
Some of the commonly used pretreatment processes
are pre-heating, steam explosion, steam conditioning,
torrefaction and ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX)
Several other pretreatment processes such as
chemical, physico-chemical (microwave, and radio
frequency heating) and biological pretreatment have
been developed, which are mainly tested and used for
bio-fuel applications than densification.
32
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Main processes
Pre-treating biomass prior to densification improves
properties like durability, bulk and energy density, and
calorific value and reduces the specific energy
consumption.
Other promising methods of improving the binding
characteristics include addition of natural or synthetic
binders.
Lignocellulosic biomass, which does not bind easily,
can be improved by adding either natural or
commercial binders like protein or lignosulfonates.
33
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Preheating and Steam Conditioning
Pre-heating biomass before densification is widely
used as it results in a higher quality product.
Most commercial pellet or briquette producers use
pre-heating to form more stable and dense product.
Pre-heating could increase the throughput of
densification and reduce the specific energy
requirement for the densification process.
Steam conditioning is a process where steam is
added to the biomass to make the natural binder,
lignin, more available during densification.
By disrupting lignocellulosic biomass materials via
steam conditioning will improve the compression
characteristics of the biomass.
34
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Steam Explosion
During this process high pressure saturated steam (~
200 C) is supplied to biomass materials in a reactor
for a short period of time (2 10 minutes).
The substrate is quickly flashed to atmospheric
pressure, and the water inside the substrate vaporizes
and expands rapidly, disintegrating the biomass.
This process causes great reduction in the particle
size and significant physical, chemical, and structural
changes in the biomass.
It causes hemicelluloses to become more water
soluble and makes cellulose and lignin more
accessible through depolymerization, and makes
lignin more available for binding during densification.35
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Steam Explosion
The extent of chemical and structural modifications
from steam-explosion pretreatment depends on
residence time, temperature, particle size and
moisture content.
Barley Straw Canola Straw
Oat Straw
Wheat Straw
Un-treated
SteamExploded
36
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Torrefaction
Torrefaction is a method of changing the properties of
biomass materials by slowly heating it in an interenvironment to a maximum temperature of 300C.
The process is also called a mild pyrolysis as most of
the smoke-producing compounds and other volatiles
are removed resulting in a final product that has
approximately 70% of the initial weight and 8090% of
the original energy content.
Thus, treatment yields a solid uniform product with
lower moisture content and higher energy content
compared to the initial biomass.
37
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Torrefaction
Biomass residues
before and after
torrefaction
Biomass pellets
and torrefied
biomass pellets
38
PRETREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Torrefaction
Range A
The biomass is dried.
Range B
Softening of the lignin
Range C
Depolymerisation occurs and the
shortened polymers condense
within the solid structure.
Range D
Limited devolatilisation and
carbonisation of the intact
polymers and the solid
structures formed in the
temperature regimes C.
Range E
Extensive devolatilisation and
carbonisation of the polymers
and of the solid products that
were formed in regime D.
39
40
41
46
47
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Overall Mechanism
48
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Overall Mechanism
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Overall Mechanism
50
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Bonding Mechanism
51
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Bonding Mechanism
Bonding Agents.
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Bonding Mechanism
Bonding Agents.
53
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
Surface forces
Adhesiveness
Hardness
55
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
56
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
2.0
1.0
20
0.5
30
0.25
24
<0.25
20
57
DENSIFICATIONTHE
MECHANISM
58
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
59
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
61
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
62
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
63
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
Working Principles
64
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
Working Principles
Tumble agglomeration
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
Working Principles
Pressure agglomeration
66
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
Common Throughput
Range (kg/h)
100 - 1800
3000 - 8000
3000 - 7000
40 - 200
SPC
(kWh/t)
50 - 70
20 - 60
20 - 60
500 - 650
Product Density
(kg/m3)
300 600
400 700
400 600
650 750
Equipment
Sawdust
Straws
Straws + Binders
Switchgrass
Pellet mill
Pellet mill
Pellet mill
Pellet mill
SEC
(kWh/t)
36.8
22 - 55
37 - 64
74.5
Biomass
Material
Sawdust
Straws
Grass
Straws + Binder
Equipment
Piston press
Screw press
Piston press
Ram exruder
SEC
(kWh/t)
37.4
150 - 220
77
60 95
68
DENSIFICATIONTHE
TECHNOLOGY
Operation
Raw Material
Density
SEC
(kg/m3)
(kWh/t)
Sawdust
1000
4.0
Sawdust
1200
6.6
Commercial
Sawdust
1200
37.4
In laboratory
MSW
1000
7.7
Commercial
MSW
1000
16.4
Sawdust
1000
36.8
Condition
Compression
Extrusion
In laboratory
69
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Overview
Briquetting is usually performed using hydraulic,
mechanical, or roller presses.
Briquettes have a density of 8001200 kg/m3,
compared to 60180kg/m3 for loose biomass.
The major limitation of biomass briquettes is uptake of
moisture during storage, leading to increase in
biological degradation / loss of dimensional stability.
Compared to pellet mills, briquetting machines can
handle larger-sized particles, wider moisture contents
without the addition of binders and have lower specific
energy consumption.
However, briquettes have lower mechanical strength.
The briquettes are usually cylindrical with diameter in
the range 30 to 100mm.
70
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Piston Press
The piston press consists of a reciprocating piston
that forces the raw material falling from the feed
hopper into a tapered die.
There are two types of piston press: the die and punch
technology; and the hydraulic press.
Hydraulic press process consists of first compacting
the biomass in the vertical direction and then again in
the horizontal direction. The material is pushed by a
piston press against the frictional force caused by die
taper and is heated to 150-200C during the process.
The piston presses are normally provided with a
relatively long channel, which serves to maintain the
shape of the briquettes while they undergoing cooling
after emerging from the die.
71
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Piston Press
The capacity of commercial piston presses is in the
range 40 to 1500 kg/hr.
Mechanical presses are normally driven electrically
and fitted with flywheels. Piston presses with
hydraulic drives employ hydraulic transmission
system, which represent a relatively recent
development.
Feedstock
Briquette
Hydraulic or
mechanical
piston drive
Nozzle
Piston
72
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Screw Press
The screw presses work on the principle of the unit
operation referred to as extrusion, which is commonly
used with processing of polymer materials.
73
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Screw Press
During this process, the raw material particles move
from the feed port with the help of a rotating screw,
through the barrel and against a die, resulting in
significant pressure gradient and friction due to
biomass shearing.
The temperature in the system is increased as the
heat is generated due to combined effects friction.
Finally, the heated biomass is forced through the
extrusion die to form the briquettes or pellets with the
required shape.
If the die is tapered, the biomass is further compacted
If the heat generated within the system is not
sufficient for smooth extrusion, heat is provided from
outside either using band or tape heaters.
74
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Screw Press
The die temperature is normally maintained at about
300C. The raw materials get heated up to about 200
C during the process, where most of the heating is
caused by friction.
The biomass materials often get partially pyrolyzed at
the surface causing significant amount of smoke
generation during the process.
The die cross-section can be circular or square with
rounded corners.
The briquettes are 5-10 cm in diameter.
The design of the screw results in the formation of a
central circular hole in the briquette, which acts as an
escape route for steam formed during briquetting.
75
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Screw Press
The outer surface of the briquettes obtained through
this process is carbonized, hence takes blackish
colour.
The compaction ratio of screw presses ranges from
2.5:1 to 6:1 or even more.
Capacity of this type of presses ranges from 50 to 800
kg/hr.
The major maintenance problems of these briquetting
machines are due to the wear of the screw and the die.
76
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Screw Press
Advantages:
Continuous output with uniform product size,
Higher bulk density (1500 kg/m against 1200 kg/m for the die
and punch technology),
Carbonized outer surface, facilitating easy ignition and
combustion, and also providing an impervious layer for
protection against moisture ingress,
Presence of the hollow central core, providing a passage for
supplying the air necessary for combustion,
Smooth running with no shock loads,
Light weight, due to the absence of reciprocating parts and
flywheel,
Absence of alternate suction and pressurization of machine,
reducing the possibility of dust collection.
77
BRIQUETTING TECHNOLOGIES
Screw Press
Disadvantages:
Higher power consumed (compared to the piston press)
Very high wear rate of the screw
Limitation on the raw material that can be compacted.
78
PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGIES
Overview
Pelletization is a process which is closely related to
the briquetting processes.
The main difference is that the dies have smaller
diameters (usually up to about 3 cm).
A pellet press is composed of a die and generally of
two or three rollers.
The die is arranged as holes bored in a thick steel disk
or ring.
Loose milled material is fed into the pelletizing cavity.
The rotation of the die and roller pressure forces
material through the die holes.
The raw material is frictionally heated.
79
PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGIES
Overview
The densified material emerges from the die as
strands of uniform section and cut with knives into
the desired length.
Pellets are cut off when coming out from the die or
they can be cut with adjustable knives to a desired
length.
The density of the pellets depends on the frictional
forces which are controlled by the length and the
diameter of the apertures in the die, the condition of
the die and rollers, the roller adjustment and the raw
material properties.
80
PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGIES
Pelletizing Methods
There are several different pelletizing methods, which
could be broadly categorized into two groups based
on roller and die press arrangements as Flat die press
and Ring die press.
Flat Die Press: Disk matrix press consisting of a die in
the form of a plane disk and rollers
81
PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGIES
Pelletizing Methods
Ring die press: Ring matrix press consisting of a die
in the form of a ring and inside rollers.
82
PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGIES
Pelletizing Methods
Ring die presses are the most popular in the pellet
industry.
From the basic method it has been several
developments. Ring die may rotate or be static, and
the power transition becomes either the die or rollers.
Inner diameters of the rings vary from about 25 cm up
to 100 cm with track surfaces from 500 to 6000 cm.
The capacities of the above types of palletizing
machines are in the range of few kg/hr to 10 t/hr.
Power consumption of the pellet mills ranges from
1540 kWh/t.
83
PELLETIZING TECHNOLOGIES
Pelletizing Methods
Other Varieties:
Punch Press
OTHER DENSIFICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
Roller Press
Densification of WAB using roller presses works on
the principle of pressure and agglomeration, where
pressure is applied between two counter-rotating
rollers with identical diameters and parallel axes.
85
OTHER DENSIFICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
Manual Presses and Low Pressure Briquetting
There are different types of manual presses used for
briquetting biomass feed stocks.
They are used both for raw biomass feedstock or
charcoal.
The use of a binder is imperative.
86
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Performance comparison of different
densification technologies
Parameter
Optimum moisture
content of the raw
material (%)
Particle size (mm)
Wear of contact parts
Output from machine
Specific energy
consumption (kWh/t)
Through puts (ton/hr)
Unit density (g/cm3)
Bulk density (g/cm3)
Maintenance
Combustion
performance of
briquettes
Screw press
Densification Technology
Piston
Roller press Pellet mill
Press
Agglomerator
4-8
10 15
10 15
10 15
2-6
High
Continuous
6 - 12
Low
In strokes
<4
High
Continuous
<3
High
Continuous
0.05 0.25
Low
Continuous
37 150
37 77
30 83
16 75
0.5
1.0 1.4
0.5 0.6
Low
2.5
2.5
< 0.1
High
5 10
0.4 0.6
Low
5
1.1 1.2
0.7 0.8
Low
0.4 0.5
Low
Very good
Moderate
Moderate
Very good
87
PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
Performance comparison of different
densification technologies
Densification Technology
Parameter
Piston
Screw press
Roller press Pellet mill Agglomerator
Press
Carbonization of
Good
Not
Not
Not
Not
charcoal
charcoal
possible
possible
possible
possible
Homogeneity of
Not
Not
densified biomass
Homogenous homogenou
Homogenous Homogenous
homogenous
s
Suitability in gasifiers
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitability for cofiring
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
Suitability for
biochemical
Not suitable Suitable
Suitable
Suitable
conversion
Addition of binder
Not
Not required
Required Not required
Required
required
Generally
Shape
Cylindrical Cylindrical
Cylindrical
Spherical
elliptical
88
The End
89