Structures for Discrete-Time Systems

Quote of the Day

Today's scientists have substituted mathematics for
experiments, and they wander off through equation
after equation, and eventually build a structure which
has no relation to reality.

Nikola Tesla

Content and Figures are from Discrete-Time Signal Processing, 2e by Oppenheim, Shafer, and Buck, 1999-2000 Prentice Hall Inc.

Example
Block diagram representation of

yn a1yn 1 a2yn 2 b0xn

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Block Diagram Representation

LTI systems with rational
system function can be
represented as constantcoefficient difference equation
The implementation of
difference equations requires
delayed values of the
input
output
intermediate results

The requirement of delayed

elements implies need for
storage
We also need means of
addition
multiplication

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Direct Form I
General form of difference equation
N

a yn k b xn k

k 0

Alternative equivalent form

N

k 0

yn ak yn k
k 1

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b xn k

k 0

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Direct Form I
Transfer function can be written as
M

H z

k
b
z
k

V z H1 z X z

b z

k 0

k 0

k
b
z
k

X z

k 1

1 ak z

vn
yn

b xn k

k 0

a yn k vn

k 1

Y z H2 z V z

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1 ak z k

k 1

Direct Form I Represents

1
H z H2 z H1 z
N

k
1 ak z
k 1

k 0

V z

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Alternative Representation
Replace order of cascade LTI systems

H z H1 z H2 z bk z k
N

k
k 0
1
ak z

k 1

1
X z
W z H2 z X z
N

k
1 ak z
k 1

Y z H1 z W z bk z k W z
k 0

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wn
yn

a wn k xn

k 1

b wn k

k 0

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Alternative Block Diagram

We can change the order of the cascade systems

wn
yn

a wn k xn

k 1

b wn k

k 0

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Direct Form II
No need to store the same
data twice in previous
system
So we can collapse the
delay elements into one
chain
This is called Direct Form II
or the Canonical Form
Theoretically no difference
between Direct Form I and
II
Implementation wise
Less memory in Direct II
Difference when using
finite-precision arithmetic

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Signal Flow Graph Representation

Similar to block diagram representation
Notational differences

A network of directed branches connected at nodes

Example representation of a difference equation

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Example
Representation of Direct Form II with signal flow graphs

w1 n aw4 n xn
w2 n w1 n

w3 n b0w2 n b1w4 n
w4 n w2 n 1
yn w3 n

w1 n aw1 n 1 xn

yn b0w1 n b1w1 n 1

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Determination of System Function from Flow Graph

w1 n w4 n xn
w2 n w1 n

w3 n w2 n xn
w4 n w3 n 1

yn w2 n w4 n

W1 z W4 z X z
W2 z W1 z

W3 z W2 z X z
W4 z W3 z z 1

Y z W2 z W4 z

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X z z 1 1
W2 z
1 z 1
X z z 1 1
W4 z
1 z 1
Y z W2 z W4 z

Y z
z 1
H z

X z 1 z 1

hn n 1un 1 n 1un

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Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Direct Form I

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Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Direct Form II

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Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Cascade Form

General form for cascade implementation
M1

H z A

k 1
N1

k 1
N2

1 c z 1 d z 1 d z
k

k 1

M2

1 f z 1 g z 1 g z
1

k 1

More practical form in 2nd order systems

M1

b0k b1k z 1 b2k z 2

H z
1
a2k z 2
k 1 1 a1k z

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Example

1 2z 1 z 2
1 z 1 1 z 1
H z

1
2
1 0.75z 0.125z
1 0.5z 1 1 0.25z 1

1 z
1

1 z

1 0.5z 1 0.25z
1

Cascade of Direct Form I subsections

Cascade of Direct Form II subsections

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Basic Structures for IIR Systems: Parallel Form

Represent system function using partial fraction expansion
NP
NP
NP
Ak
Bk 1 ek z 1
k
H z Ck z

1
1
1
1

c
z
1

d
z
1

d
k 0
k 1
k 1
k
k
kz

Or by pairing the real poles

H z

NP

C z

k 0

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NS

e0k e1k z 1

1
a2k z 2
k 1 1 a1k z

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Example
Partial Fraction Expansion

1 2z 1 z 2
18
25
H z

1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2
1 0.5z 1
1 0.25z 1

Combine poles to get

7 8z 1
H z 8
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2

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Transposed Forms
Linear signal flow graph property:
Transposing doesnt change the input-output relation

Transposing:
Reverse directions of all branches
Interchange input and output nodes

Example:

H z

1
1 az 1

Reverse directions of branches and interchange input and output

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Example

Transpose

Both have the same system function or difference equation

yn a1yn 1 a2yn 2 b0 xn b1xn 1 b2xn 2

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Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Direct Form

Special cases of IIR direct form structures

Transpose of direct form I gives direct form II

Both forms are equal for FIR systems

Tapped delay line

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Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Cascade Form

Obtained by factoring the polynomial system function

H z

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hnz

n0

MS

b
k 1

0k

b1k z 1 b2k z 2

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Structures for Linear-Phase FIR Systems

Causal FIR system with generalized linear phase are
symmetric:

hM n hn

hM n hn

n 0,1,..., M

(type I or III)

n 0,1,..., M

(type II or IV)

Symmetry means we can half the number of multiplications

Example: For even M and type I or type III systems:

yn

M / 2 1

k 0

k 0

k M / 2 1

hk xn k hk xn k hM / 2xn M / 2 hk xn k
M / 2 1

M / 2 1

k 0

k 0

hk xn k hM / 2xn M / 2 hM k xn M k

M / 2 1

hk xn k xn M k hM / 2xn M / 2

k 0

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Structures for Linear-Phase FIR Systems

Structure for even M

Structure for odd M

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