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CHAPTER 15 - Quantum Cryptography
CHAPTER 15 - Quantum Cryptography
CHAPTER 15 - Quantum Cryptography
IV054
Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography
|| | 2
is then the probability of the transfer.
Quantum cryptography
1
1
n
*
i i of vectors 2 , 2 ,
..
..
i 1
n
n
This allows to define the norm of vectors as
.
Two vectors | and | are called orthogonal if | = 0.
A basis B of Hn is any set of n vectors |b1|b2|bn of the norm 1 which are
mutually orthogonal.
Given a basis B, any vector | from Hn can be uniquelly expressed in the form
n
i bi .
i 1
Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography
COMPUTATION
in
in
QUANTUM SYSTEM
HILBERT SPACE
is described by
ih
| (t )
H (t ) | (t )
t
where h is Planck constant, H(t) is a Hamiltonian (total energy) of the system that can be
| (t(t)
) Uis(t )the
| (0state
)
represented by a Hermitian matrix and
of the system in time t.
If the Hamiltonian is time independent then the above Shrdinger equation has solution
where
| (t ) U (t ) | (0)
A matrix A is unitary if
A A* = A* A = I
Quantum cryptography
Quantum cryptography
IV054 QUBITS
A qubit is a quantum state in H2
| = |0 + |1
where , C are such that ||2 + ||2 = 1 and
{ |0|1} is a (standard) basis of H2
Figure 5: Qubit representations by energy levels of an electron in a hydrogen atom and by a spin-1/2 particle.
The condition ||2 + ||2 = 1 is a legal one if ||2 and ||2 are to be the probabilities of being in one of two basis
states (of electrons or photons).
Quantum cryptography
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DUAL BASIS
0
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Hadamard matrix
H
H |0= |0 H |0= |0
H |1= |1 H |1= |1
1 1 1
2 1 1
Quantum cryptography
0 cos
i
e i sin
i sin
cos
e i
0
e
11
|0 + |1
with respect to the basis
|0|1
we can obtain only classical information and only in the following random way:
0 with probability ||2
Quantum cryptography
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0 1 0 0
CNOT XOR
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
It holds:
CNOT : |x, y|x, x y
Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
10 11
14
FORMAL VERSION: There is no unitary transformation U such that for any qubit
state |
U (||0) = ||
PROOF: Assume U exists and for two different states | and |
U (||0) = || U (||0) = ||
Let
Then
1
2
U 0
1
1
2
2
However, CNOT can make copies of basis states |0, |1:
Quantum cryptography
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1
00 11
2
1
01 10
Quantum cryptography
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i i
i 0
2 n 1
i i , where
i 1
i 0 ,1 n
i 0
Hn 0
H 0
n
i 1
n
i 1
0' 0'
Hn x
Quantum cryptography
x y in1 xi yi .
1
2
2 n 1
1
2
x. y
i
i 0
y .1
1
2
x 0 ,1 n
(1)
y 0 ,1 n
17
2 n 1
1
2
i 0
n
2 i 0
Quantum cryptography
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NOT,
in QUANTUM ENTANGLEMENT!
Let
1
00 11
2
be a (global) state of two very distant particles,
for example on two planets
Quantum cryptography
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POWER of ENTANGLEMENT
Quantum state |> of a bipartite quantum state A x B is called
entangled if it cannot be decomposed into tensor product of the
states from A and B.
Quantum entanglement is an important quantum resource that alllows
To create phenomena that are impossible in the classical world (for
example teleportation)
To create quantum algorithms that are asymptotically more efficient
than any classical algorithm for the same problem.
To cretae communication protocols that are asymptotically more
efficient than classical communication protocols for the same task
To create, for two parties, shared secret binary keys
To increase capacity of quantum channels
Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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If the electric field vector is always parallel to a fixed line we have linear
polarization (see Figure).
Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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For any two orthogonal polarizations there are generators that produce photons of
two given orthogonal polarizations. For example, a calcite crystal, properly oriented,
can do the job.
Fig. c - a calcite crystal that makes -polarized photons to be horizontally
(vertically) polarized with probability cos2 (sin2 ).
Fig. d - a calcite crystal can be used to separate horizontally and vertically
polarized photons.
Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3
2 4 2 2 4 2 4 8
29
Quantum transmission
Alice is assumed to have four transmitters of photons in one of the following four
polarizations 0, 45, 90 and 135 degrees
Expressed in a more general form, Alice uses for encoding states from the set {|
0, |1,|0', |1'}.
Bob has a detector that can be set up to distinguish between rectilinear
polarizations (0 and 90 degrees) or can be quickly reset to distinguish between
diagonal polarizations (45 and 135 degrees).
Quantum cryptography
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Bobs
observables
0 B
1 D
0 B
1 D
0 B
1 D
0 B
1 D
Alices state
relative to Bob
|0
1/sqrt2 (|0'|1'
1/sqrt2 (|0|1
|0'
|1
1/sqrt2 (|0'|1'
1/sqrt2 (|0|1
|1'
The result
and its probability
0 (prob. 1)
0/1 (prob. )
0/1 (prob. )
0 (prob. 1)
1 (prob. 1)
0/1 (prob. )
0/1 (prob. )
1 (prob. 1)
Correctness
correct
random
random
correct
correct
random
random
correct
Figure 9 shows the possible results of the measurements and their probabilities.
Quantum cryptography
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|1
|0'
|0
|0'
|1
|1'
|0'
|0
|0
|1
|1'
Bobs observable
outcomes
Alices polarizations
Figure 10: Quantum transmissions in the BB84 protocol - R stands for the case that the result of the measurement is
random.
Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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All current systems use optical means for quantum state transmissions
Quantum cryptography
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0 1
EPR pair
Total state
1
00 11
2
1
000 011 100 111
EPR pair
2
Measurement of the first two qubits is done with respect to the Bell basis:
1
00 11
2
1
01 10
Quantum cryptography
1
00 11
2
1
01 10
36
1
000 011 100 111
2
1
0 1 1 0 1
2
2
1
0 1 1 0 1
2
2
and therefore the measurement of the first two particles projects the state of the
Bob's particle into a small modification 1 of the unknown state
= 1/sqrt 2 01).
The unknown state can therefore be obtained from 1 by applying one of the
four operations
x, y, z, I
and the result of the Bell measurement provides two bits specifying which
of the above four operations should be applied.
These four bits Alice needs to send to Bob using a classical channel (by email, for
example).
Quantum cryptography
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, 0 1 , 0 1 , 0 1 , 0 1
4
4
4
4
I.
4
4
4
4
2
The resulting density matrix is identical to the density matrix for the mixed state
1
1
, 0 , 1
2
2
Indeed, the density matrix for the last mixed state has the form
1 1
1 0
1
1
,
0
0
,
1
I.
0
1
2
2
2
Quantum cryptography
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Quantum cryptography
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