CHAPTER 43

NEUROSCIENCE I:
CELLS OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Prepared by

Brenda Leady, University of Toledo

Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies

, Inc. Permission required for reprodu

Nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS) brain and
spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) all
neurons and projections of their plasma
membranes that are outside of the CNS
In certain invertebrates with a simple
nervous system, the distinction is not clear
or not present

Neurons
Cells in the nervous system that send and
receive electrical and chemical signals to
and from other neurons throughout the
body
All animals except sponges have neurons
Number varies widely as a function of size
and behavioral complexity

Neuron structure

Cell body or soma contains nucleus and organelles

Dendrites
Extensions

of plasma membrane
May be single or branching
Incoming signals

Axons
Extension

of plasma membrane
Typically single
Sending signals
Axon hillock near cell body
Terminal branches or nerve terminal at far end

Glia

Perform various support functions

10 to 1,000 times more numerous than neurons
Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS) make
myelin sheath
Astrocytes metabolic support
Microglia remove cellular debris
Radial glia form tracks for neuronal migration in
embryos
Radial glia and astrocytes function as stem cells to
produce more glial cells and neurons
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3 types of neurons

Sensory neurons
Detect

information from the outside world or internal

body conditions
Afferent neurons transmit to CNS

Motor neurons
Send

signals away from CNS (efferent neurons) to

elicit response

Interneurons
Form

complex interconnections between other

neurons
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Reflex arc

Stimulus from sensory neurons sent to CNS,

little or no interpretation, signal transmitted to
motor neurons to elicit response

10

Electrical properties

Membrane potential
Difference

in charge inside and outside the cell

Plasma membrane barrier separating charges
Ion concentrations differ between the inside and
outside of the cell
Polarized

Resting membrane potential

When

neurons not sending signals

11

Squid giant axons

used extensively
Voltmeter records the
voltage difference
between the
microelectrodes
inside and outside the
neuron
Measure of
membrane potential

12

Plasma membrane selectively permeable

to cations and anions
-70mv resting potential inside cell

Interior

more negative than exterior

Negative ions within the cell are drawn to

the positive ions arrayed on the outer
surface
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3 factors contributing to resting potential

1.

Na+/K+ -ATPase (sodium-potassium pump

2.

Ion specific channels allow passive movement

of ions

3.

Transports 3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ moved in

K+ channels open more frequently at resting

potential
Membrane more permeable to K +

Negatively charged molecules such as

proteins more abundant inside cell
15

Electrochemical gradient

Combined effect of electrical and chemical

gradient

16

Opposing forces of chemical and electrical

gradients can create an equilibrium where
there is no net movement

17

Signaling by neurons

Changes in membrane potential are changes in the

degree of polarization
Depolarization cell membrane less polarized, less
negative relative to surrounding solution
Gated

channels open allowing Na+ to flow in and

membrane potential becomes more positive

Hyperpolarization cell membrane more polarized,

more negative
K+

moves out of the cell making the cell membrane less

positive
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All cells have a membrane potential

Only neurons and muscle cells are excitable
capacity to generate electrical signals
Use gated ion channels

Voltage-gated

open and close in response to

voltage changes
Ligand-gated open and close in response to
ligands or chemicals
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2 types of changes
1.

Graded potentials

Depolarization or hyperpolarization
Varies depending on strength of stimulus
Occur locally, spreads a short distance, and
dies out

21

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2.

Action potentials

Always the large same amplitude

depolarization
All-or-none
Actively propagated or regenerative

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Action potential sequence

Begins when graded potential depolarizes
to threshold potential (-50mV)
Voltage-gated Na+ channels open
triggering action potential
Na+ rapidly diffuses into cell causing
characteristic spike
Inactivation gate in Na + channel swings
shut after 1 msec (will not reopen until
resting potential restored)

25

Voltage-gated K+ channels also opened by

threshold potential but 1 msec later than Na +
channels
K+ leave cell and membrane becomes negative
again
So many K+ leave that membrane hyperpolarizes
Voltage-gated K+ channels close and resting
membrane potential restored

26

Evolution of K+ channels with a slightly

slower opening time than Na+ channels
was a key event that led to the formation
of nervous systems
If both opened at the same time, they
would negate each others effects

27

Refractory period
While

inactivation gate of Na+ closed, cell is

unresponsive to another stimulus
Places limits on the frequency of action
potentials
Also ensures action potential does not move
backward toward cell body

28

Conduction
Na+ enters and threshold potential reached at
axon hillock
Triggers opening of voltage-gated Na + channels in
hillock region
Depolarizes area nearer axon terminus
Sequential opening of Na + channels conducts a
wave of depolarization from axon hillock to axon
terminus
Inactivation gate of Na+ channels prevents
backward movement toward cell body

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Speed varies based on

Axon diameter
Broad

axons provide less resistance and action

potential moves faster

Myelination
Myelinated

faster then unmyelinated

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells make myelin
sheath
Not continuous gaps at nodes of Ranvier
Saltatory conduction action potential jumps or
flows through cytosol to next node
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Synapses
Junction where nerve terminal meets a neuron,
muscle cell, or gland
Presynaptic cell (sends signal), synaptic cleft
and postsynaptic cell (receives signal)
2 types

Electrical

electric charge freely flows through gap

junctions from cell to cell
Chemical neurotransmitter acts as signal from
presynaptic to postsynaptic cell
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Presynaptic nerve cell contains vesicles of

neurotransmitter
Exocytosis releases neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft
Diffuses across cleft
Binds to channels or receptors in
postsynaptic cell membrane

35

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Binding of neurotransmitter changes

membrane potential of postsynaptic cell
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Brings

membrane closer to threshold potential

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

Takes

membrane farther from threshold potential

(hyperpolarization)

Synaptic signal ends when neurotransmitter

broken down by enzymes or taken back into
presynaptic cell for reuse
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Neuron response
A neuron may receive multiple inputs from
many synapses
Synaptic integration or summation

Many

EPSPs generated at one time sum together

to go to threshold potential

Location also important

Synapses

close together or close to axon hillock

activated at the same time can work together to
reach threshold potential
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Neurotransmitters
More than 100 in animals
Categorized by size or molecular structure
Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters

Like

brake and accelerator on a car

40

5 classes of neurotransmitters
1.

Acetylcholine

2.

One of most widespread neurotransmitters

Released at neuromuscular junctions
Excitatory in brain and skeletal muscles but inhibitory
in cardiac muscles

Biogenic amines

Abnormally high or low levels associated with a

variety of disorders (schizophrenia, Parkinson
disease, and depression)

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3.

Amino acids

4.

Glutamate most widespread excitatory

neurotransmitter
GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) most common
inhibitory neurotransmitter

Neuropeptides

Often called neuromodulators can alter response of

postsynaptic neuron to other neurotransmitters
Opiate peptides, enkaphalin, oxytocin

42

5.

Gaseous neurotransmitters

Not sequestered into vesicles

Produced locally as needed
Short-acting to influence other cells by diffusion
Several drugs for male sexual dysfunction
enhance erections by increasing or mimicking
action of NO on smooth muscle
Function of CO uncertain
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Loewi Discovered Acetylcholine

Interested in how nerves communicate with muscles

A certain nerve attached to heart increased
contraction rate while another nerve decreased it
Placed 2 frog hearts in separate but connected
chambers
Stimulated on heart to slow rate
Within a few minutes the other heart that had not
been stimulated also slowed
Acetylcholine first neurotransmitter discovered

Postsynaptic receptors

Same neurotransmitter can have excitatory or

inhibitory effects
Response of postsynaptic cell depends on
receptor type
Ionotropic receptors ligand-gated ion channels
open in response to neurotransmitter
Metabotropic receptors G-protein coupled
receptors initiate changes in postsynaptic cell
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Neurotransmitter Receptors Have

Varied Subunit Compositions

GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that opens Cl - channels

Ionotropic receptor allows Cl- to flow in causing hyperpolarization
of plasma membrane
One GABA receptor composed of 5 subunits
Group of homologous genes encodes at least 16 different subunits
(plus alternative splicing)
Each type of subunit has unique properties to fine-tune function of
GABA receptor
Differ in effects of GABA binding and rate of Cl - movement
May also differ in ability to recognize molecules other than GABA
Ethanol depresses brain and muscle activity by binding to GABA
receptors

Impact on public health

Neurotransmission disorders
Genetic

processes can increase or decrease synaptic

activity affecting emotions and behavior
Major depression thought to result from decreased
activity of synapses releasing biogenic amines

Recreational drugs
Enhance

or interfere with neurotransmission

Drugs produce changes or imbalances in
neurotransmission
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Conduction disorders
Cretinism

axons fail to become myelinated

during fetal life due to insufficient thyroid
hormone in fetus
Multiple sclerosis (MS) patients own body
destroys myelin as if it were a foreign
substance impairing function of myelinated
neurons controlling movement, speech,
memory, and emotion
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