LECTURE: 11

Memory

THE SENSORY REGISTERS

Many Psychologists view memory as a series of steps

in which we encode, store and retrieve information,
much like a computer does.
This is called the information processing model of
memory.
The first step in the model is inputting data through
our senses into temporary holding bins called
sensory registers.
These registers give us a brief moment to decide
whether something deserves our attention.

VISUAL AND AUDITORY REGISTERS

Information entering a sensory register

disappears very quickly if isnt processed further.
Information in the visual register lasts for only
about a quarter of a second before it is replaced
by new information.
If sounds faded from our auditory register as
rapidly as this, spoken language would be more
difficult. Information in the auditory register can
linger for several seconds.

INITIAL PROCESSING: WHY DOES SOME

INFORMATION CAPTURE OUR ATTENTION
WHILE OTHER INFORMATION GOES
UNNOTICED

The next step in the memory process is attention

selectively looking at, listening to, smelling ,
tasting or feeling what we deem to be important.
The nervous system seems to automatically filter
out peripheral information, allowing us to zero in
on what is essential at a particular time.
Unattended information receives at least some
processing, however, so we can quickly shift
attention to it if it suddenly strikes us as
significant.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

2.

Short-term memory holds whatever information

we are actively attending to at any given time.
Its two primary tasks are to
1.
store new information briefly and
to work on information that we currently have
in mind.
.This

second function is why STM is also called

working memory.

CONTD.

How does Chunking Improve the Capacity of STM?

Short term memory can hold only as much information

as can be repeated or rehearsed in 1-1/2 to 2 seconds.
This is usually somewhere between 5 and 10 items.
By clustering bits of related information into larger
groups(called chunking).
However, the amount of information held in STM can be
expanded even though the 5-to-10 item limit still holds
true. Each item is simply larger.

CONTD.
Storage of Information in STM

Information can be stored in STM according to the

way it sounds or the way it looks.
Verbal information is encoded by sound, even if we
see the words written rather than hear them
spoken.
Interestingly, the capacity for visual encoding in
STM seems to be greater than for encoding by
sound.

CONTD.
Retention and Retrieval in STM

Information in STM disappears in 15-20 seconds

unless it is rehearsed or practiced.
Decay theory holds that material that is not
actively renewed simply fades away with the
passage of time.
Interference Theory adds to this the idea of
new information following old and pushing it out
of the way. Both theories have merit.

ROTE AND ELABORATIVE

REHEARSAL

Rote Rehearsal: Repeating something over and

over again is known as rote rehearsal. It is useful for
remembering something for a brief time, but it is not
the most efficient way to remember something
permanently.
Elaborative Rehearsal: The best way to remember
something is to practice elaborative rehearsal in
which you think about the meaning of new
information and link it to information you already
know. This kind of processing is deeper than simple
rote repetition and more likely to transfer data from
short term to long term memory (LTM).

LONG TERM MEMORY(LTM)

In discussing long- term memory, psychologists
sometimes distinguish among semantic memory,
episodic and procedural memory.
Semantic memory: Stores general facts and
information, much as an encyclopedia or
dictionary does, with numerous cross-references
to related ideas.
Episodic Memory: Stores memories of events
that have happened, much as a diary might.
Procedural Memory: Stores information
relating to skills, habits, and other complex
perceptual- motor tasks.

CONTD.
Encoding information in the LTM
There are several ways we encode information in long term
memory.

Sometimes memories are encoded in terms of nonverbal

images, such as shapes, sounds, smells, tastes and touch
sensations.
More commonly, however memories are encoded by their
meaning. You extract the significant highlights from what you
read, hear or experience, and lodge those in LTM, linking them
to other material already stored there . In this way your LTM
memories become categorized and interrelated, much like
information in an elaborate filing system.

CONTD.
Implicit and Explicit Memories
Implicit Memory: Human memory is filled with
information not deliberately placed there. This is
called implicit memory or memory for things that
were either not deliberately encoded into longterm storage or were retrieved without conscious
intention.
Explicit Memory: memory for information that
is intentionally committed to and retrieved from
LTM, such as the facts you learn when studying
for a test.

CONTD.
Storage and Retrieval in LTM
Not everything stored in LTM is recalled with precision. One
reason is interference from bits of information that are similar to
the one we want to retrieve. This can cause confusion and
sometimes lead to the tip-of-the tongue phenomenon.
The effects of interference are not limited to TOT episodes. In
fact interference often explains why people can not retrieve
information form LTM. Interference can come from two directions:
Retroactive Interference: The process by which new
information interferes with old information already in memory.
Proactive Interference: The process by which old material
already in memory interferes with new information.
In addition, people may unknowingly reconstruct their memories
over time. For instance, they may recast negative memories to
make them less painful, or they may embellish the past to fit a
desired self-image.

EVENTS THAT ARE MOST LIKELY TO

BE REMEMBERED
Autobiographical memory: refers to
recollection of events from ones life.
Not all of these events are recalled with equal
clarity, of course and some are not recalled at all.
People generally can not remember events that
occurred before age 2 (a phenomenon called
infantile amnesia), and our memories are
typically strongest for events that had a major
impact on our lives or that aroused strong
emotion.

WHAT FACTORS CAN INFLUENCE HOW WELL

YOU REMEMBER A SPECIFIC INCIDENT.
The values and customs of a given culture have
a profound effect on what people remember and
how easily they recall it.
So do the emotions we attach to a memory, with
some emotion- laden events being remembered
for life .
Also effecting how well we remember are the
strategies we use to store and retrieve
information.

FLASHBULB MEMORIES

Vivid flashbulb memories sometimes form for

events that are linked to some powerful emotion,
such as shock, terror, grief or joy. Such memories
can remain highly detailed and unchanged
throughout the years because of the strong
emotion that prevailed when they were formed.

IMPROVING MEMORY
The key to improving long-term memory lies in
organizing and encoding information more
effectively.
Techniques called mnemonics can sometimes
help you do this. Examples of mnemonics are
rhymes and jingles for remembering particular
dates or other facts. Other mnemonics rely on
mental imagery to provide retrieval cues.
Memory can also be improved by developing a
strong motivation to remember and by practicing
memory skills in a deliberate way.

WHERE IN THE BRAIN ARE

MEMORIES LOCATED?

Some memories may be localized in certain parts

of the brain. The cerebellum, for example stores
some of the learning that occurs in classical
conditioning.
In many cases, however, memories are stored
more diffusely. This is shown by the fact that
damage to one part of the brain may diminish
but not erase many of our memories.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT CAN

CAUSE MEMORY LOSS

Accidents, surgery, poor diet, and disease can

lead to brain damage and memory loss. For
instance, head injury often cause retrograde
amnesia, an inability to remember what
happened right before the accident.
The condition called Alzheimers disease is an
example of memory loss due to disease , one that
involves atrophy and abnormal growth of brain
structures. Interestingly, the memory loss
associated with chronic alcoholism may be caused
by a vitamin deficiency due to poor diet.