Phylum Arthopoda

Phylum Arthropoda
Green June beetle

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
Genus and species: Cotinis nitida (Linnaeus)
Defining Characteristics
• EXOSKELETON: segmented,
jointed, hardened (sclerotized),
chitinous epidermis
• MUSCULATURE: intrinsic,
between individual joints and
appendages
• CILIA: completely lost both in

adult and larval stage
Introduction
• Means jointed foot
• Contains 75% of all animal
species
– Best represented body plan in
animal kingdom
• Metameric
• Tagmatization
– Specialization of groups of
segments
– 3 distinct tagmata: head,
thorax, abdomen
Exoskeleton
• Hard, external covering
• For protection and
locomotion
• Secreted by epidermal cells
• EPICUTICLE
– Outermost, 3% of exoskeleton, waxy = lipoprotein +
lipid, water impermeable
– Pro: water retention
Con: cannot function for gas exchange
Exoskeleton
• PROCUTICLE
– Chitin
• Polysaccharide
• Strong, non-allergenic, biodegradable
• For protection, support and movement
• Looked at for commercial purposes
– Calcium carbonate deposition in
crustaceans
– Tanning/ Sclerotization
• For hardening of procuticle
• Cross-linking between protein chains
• In insects: hardened entirely by tanning
• In other phyla (Molluscs, etc): scelrotization
also occurs
Exoskeleton
• PROCUTICLE
– Varies in thickness, not entirely hardened
• Function: forms joints, functions similarly to vertebrate
skeleton
• Resilin/animal rubber in joints such as wings
– Stores and releases energy
Hemocoel
• Main body cavity (coelom, not
functional)
• Part of the blood circulatory
system
• Arachnids extend their legs by

increasing blood pressure within
the hemocoel
• Other arthropods don’t use it as
much for locomotion
Molting/ Ecdysis
• Ecdoysis
• Exoskeleton secreted over all
regions of body simultaneously,
encasing the arthropod in an
armor
• Cuticle is needed to be shed to
increase in size
• Done by enzymatic secretions
and is split (by water, air, inc
blood pressure) prior to removal
Molting/ Ecdysis
• Increase in size: discontinuous
Increase in biomass: continuous
• New cuticle secreted before shedding
– Aided by marine environment, high internal BP,
small body of terrestrial arthropods
– New cuticle hardens only when old one is shed
Process of Ecdysis
• Neural and hormonal control
• Y-ORGAN (crustacean head) or PROTHORACIC
GLAND (insect thorax)
• ECDYSTEROID HORMONES: stimulate molting
• X-ORGAN (crustacean eye stalk): secrets another
hormone, inhibitory
Process of Ecdysis
• In insects: ecydsteroid production triggered by
brain’s production of another hormone,
activating prothoracic gland
• In crustaceans: ecdysteroid production inhibited

by hormone from X-organ, non-effectivity of this
hormone induces production of ecdysone by Y-
organ or directly act on ecydsone
VIDEO
TIME!
Nerves and Muscles
• In arthropods, a muscle fiber may be
innervated by more than one type of neuron.
• The strength of muscle contraction depends
on the rate of nerve impulses.
Figure 14.4 p.333
Nerves and Muscles
• A single arthropod neuron may innervate
many muscle fibers.
• One muscle may be innervated by very few
neurons. (2 to 3 usually)
• Compare with vertebrates: a vertebrate
muscle may be innervated by hundreds of
millions of neurons.
Nerves and Muscles
• Some neurons are inhibitory.
• Rate of contraction is partly a property of the
individual muscle fiber.
• Fine control of arthropod movement is
dependent on the types of muscle fiber
stimulated and the interaction of the several
types of neuron innervating the muscle fibers.
Figure 14.4 p.333
Nerves and Muscles
• Arthropod muscles are entirely striated.
• Striated muscles contract far more quickly
than smooth muscles.
• Without striated muscles, arthropods will
probably be unable to take flight.
Brachinus sp. TEM micrograph of striated muscle around secretory lobe
Brachinus sp. TEM micrograph of striated muscle around collecting tube
• Table 14.1 p.333
Circulatory System
• Open circulatory system
• Blood leaves the heart through closed vessels
• Oxygenated blood may enter the heart as it expands
from the hemocoel through ostia.
• Gas exchange may be achieved through radically
different means in a number of arthropod groups.
• Hemolymph is a combination of blood, lymph and
interstitial fluid. It flows freely throughout the
hemocoel, the spaces between the organs.
• Hemocyanin or hemoglobin.
• Figure 14.5
p.334
Arthropod Visual Systems
• An ocellus is a small cup with a light sensitive surface
backed by light absorbing pigments. The cup is often
covered by a lens.
• The photosensitive pigment of the ocellus is a Vitamin
A derivative combined with a protein.
• Stimulation by light causes a change in the
photoreceptor pigment, generating action potentials
to be carried elsewhere by nerve fibers to be
processed.
• Ocelli are not image forming.
• Polarized light may be used by insects as a
navigational cue during flight or mate
recognition (butterflies)
• Their sensitivity to UV light permits them to
see patterns that are invisible to humans.
• May also be sensitive to light of infrared
wavelengths.
Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis)
Left: natural view Right: ultraviolet view
• The light-sensitive pigments are found in
rhabdomeres, which are fine, microvillar
outfoldings of the retinular cell walls.
• The rhabdomeres within each ommatidium form
a discrete, ordered association called a rhabdom.
• The rhabdom records the light intensity at the
center of the image that falls at its tip, not the
entire image. The tip of one rhabdom is
analogous to a single rod in our eyes.
• Figure 14.7 p.335
• The brain reconstructs the complete image from all
the signals input from the individual ommatidia.
• The basic compound eye is the apposition eye. The
lens is directly apposed to the receiving rhabdom.
• Each lens is very small so each rhabdom receives only
a small amount of light. Apposition eyes work best at
fairly high light intensities.
• For it to work at low light intensities, the neural
cartridge must receive light from more than one
ommatidium.
• If the screening pigment is lacking, this type of
eye is called the superposition eye.
• Each ommatidium has a large space between the
distal end of the crystalline cone and the rhabdom
without the shielding pigment in the way.
• Light from a single point can be received by many
lenses and focused onto a single rhabdom,
producing a signal of greater intensity.
• The superposition eye adapts easily to light
intensity.
• If light intensity increases, the pigment
granules migrate down each collar and acts as
an iris.
• In reduced light intensity, the pigment
granules migrate out of the way.
• Pigment migration is under hormonal control.
• Figure 14.8 p.336
Classification and Evolutionary Relationships
• 6 classes, 80 orders, 2,400 families

• 10-20x more than the number of Molluscans
• Adult body plans show little deviation from
general body plan
• 95% of arthropod species from arachnids, insects
and crustaceans
• Phylogeny and evolutionary origins, still unclear
Phylum Arthropoda
• Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
– Class Trilobita
• Subphylum Chelicerata
– Class Merostomata
– Class Arachnida
– Class Pycnogonida
• Subphylum Mandibulata
– Class Myriapoda
– Class Insecta
– Class Crustacea
Subphylum Trilobitomorpha
Class Trilobita
Defining Characteristics: 2 anterior-posterior furrows
divide the body into 3 regions (2 lateral, one central)
Class Trilobita
 no living representative but
approx. 4000 species in fossil
record
 common about 500 million
years ago but extinct by about
225 million years later
• cause of extinction remains
uncertain but it was
completed well in advance of
the catastrophic end-Permian Trilobite of the Month: March 2010
mass extinction Cyphaspides sp.
Class Trilobita
 Morphological differences
apparent among the fossilized
remains imply that significant
ecological diversity existed within
the group at one time, varying
from burrowing trilobites to
walking and swimming forms.
http://www.vsatx.org/gallery/lea...tes.html
Three brown trilobites swimming in a body
of blue water.
Class Trilobita
THE TRILOBITE BODY PLAN (DORSAL)

Section I  flattened dorsoventrally and divided into 3
sections:
 Cephalon (Section I), Thorax (Section II) and
Pygidium (Section III)
 Sections I and III were covered by a carapace
Section II
(a continuous unjointed sheet of
exoskeleton)
 pair of compound eyes, each composed of
many ommatidia found laterally on the first body
Section III section
 the name trilobite which means “three-lobed”
is not in reference to the three body parts but to
the fact that all trilobites bear a long central axial
lobe, flanked on each side and left pleural lobes
http://www.trilobites.info/trilobite.htm
Class Trilobita
THE TRILOBITE BODY PLAN
(VENTRAL)
 on one of the segments of the body
region I, a chitinous lip called labrum is
present
 each body segments posterior to the
mouth have biramous appendages Holochroal eyes of the Asaphoid trilobite Isotelus
 innermost branch was devoid of
setae: function as walking
 outer branch bore long filaments:
(epidodite) maybe gill filaments or
setae used for swimming, filtering food
or digging
 specialization increased as more

advanced groups appeared and has
often involved the reduction or
complete loss of one of the 2 branches
Phylum Arthropoda
– Class Trilobita
– Class Arachnida
– Class Myriapoda
– Class Insecta
– Class Crustacea
Subphylum Chelicerata
Defining Characteristics: Absence of antennae; body
divided into 2 distinct portions (prosoma and
opisthosoma), with no distinct head and first pair of
appendages on the prosoma are adapted for feeding.
 only arthropods without antennae
 first anterior segment bears no appendages at all
 second anterior segments bears a pair of clawed
appendages called chelicerae, adjacent to the mouth for
grabbing and shredding food
 lack mandibles, which are used for chewing and
grinding food by other arthropod groups
Class Merostomata
Defining Characteristics: Appendages on the
opisthosoma are flattened and modified for gas exchange
as “book gills” and terminal portion of body (telson)
drawn out into an elongated spike
Class Merostomata
 commonly called
horseshoe crab, but despite
common name the animals
are not true crabs
 primarily of extinct
species for only 4 species
are currently living
http://www.evcforum.net/cgi-bin/dm.cgi?action=msg&t=7440
 all members are marine
 burrow through surface
layers of mud, ingesting
animals that come across
Class Merostomata
U  basic principles of vision

SE  components of horseshoe
S crab blood are used to test
injectable pharmaceutical
IN solutions for contamination by
BI bacterial endotoxins and
O screen several diseases
L  embryos provide a critical
O fuel source for red knots,
sanderlings and other
G
migrating shorebirds
Y http://staff.science.nus.edu.sg/~sivasothi/biorefu
gia/archive/2008_01_01_archive.html
VIDEO
TIME!
Class Merostomata
Order Xiphosura
THE BODY PLAN (HEAD and THORAX)
 Prosoma – head and thorax of
merostomates are fused also called
cephalothorax
 Carapace – single unjointed sheet of
exoskeleton
 Hox gene expression suggest that prosoma
of horseshoe crabs and other chelicerates
correspond the head of the arthropods
 compound eyes is present laterally, on
dorsal surface of prosoma
 only living chelicerate that has compound
eyes
Class Merostomata
THE BODY PLAN (APPENDAGES)
 Chelicerae – 1st pair of appendages found
ventrally on the prosoma
 Walking legs – the next 5 pairs of similar
appendages
 1st pair: pedipalps (in females)
 1st pair: modified for grasping the female
during mating (in males)
 in both sexes, first 4 pairs of walking legs
are modified near the base to form a
toothed food-grinding surface called
gnathobase
 5th pair: modified for cleaning the gills, and
removing mud during burrowing
 Chilaria – small hair appendages found in the
last segment of prosoma involved in crushing
food
Class Merostomata
THE BODY PLAN (ABDOMEN)

 the opisthosoma bears 6
pairs of appendages
 1st pair: modified for
reproduction
 around 5 pairs: modified to
serve as gills
 underside of each gill flap
bears leaf-like gas exchange
surfaces called book gills,
where blood circulates
Class Merostomata
Order Eurypterida
• commonly known as “the water
scorpion”
• went extinct some 230 million
years ago
• euryperids later invaded
estuarine and freshwater
environments
• members of some species
attained lengths exceeding 2
meters, making them the largest
arthropods that ever lived
• believed that arachnids came
from eurypterid ancestors
Class Arachnida
Class Arachnida
• More than 70000 living species described

• Terrestrial (earliest members were marine)
• Spiders, mites, ticks, pseudoscorpions and
scorpions
Class Arachnida
Characteristics
• Body divisions:
– cephalothorax or prosoma (anterior)
• Contains sense organs, mouthparts and limbs in pairs
– abdomen or opisthosoma (posterior)

• Bears genital opening and other structures such as book lungs, silk gland and
spinnerets
Class Arachnida
Characteristics
Prosoma – covered by carapace
• 0-4 pairs of eyes
• Chelicerae : anteriormost pair of appendages
• Pedipalps : modified for grabbing, killing, reproducing or
for sensory function
– Maxilla : formed by the basal segment of each pedipalp which aids
in mechanical preparation of food
• Walking legs
Class Arachnida
Characteristics
Opisthosoma
• Pedicel : narrow stalk that connects to prosoma (in spiders
and some arachnids)
– Absent in mites and ticks (prosoma and opisthosoma fused
together)
• Book lungs : modified internalized book gills
• Spiracles : openings that connect book lungs to the outside
• Tracheae :
Class Arachnida
Characteristics
Class Arachnida
Order Araneae
• Spiders
• Bear spinnerets
– Small abdominal appendages
located ventrally and
posteriorly
– Used to extrude silk proteins
• Contain silk glands
Class Arachnida
Order Araneae
Class Arachnida
Spider webs
Class Arachnida
Order Acari
• Mites and ticks
• Mites: 100µm – 1mm
• Ticks: 5-6mm
• With economic and medical
Dermacentor
importance
Class Arachnida
Order Acari
• Parasitic
– On a tremendous
variety of hosts
• Feed exclusively on
fluid
– Suck through a
muscular pharynx
Class Arachnida
Order Acari
• Transmit variety of diseases to humans
– Rocky Mountain spotted fever
– Q fever
– Lyme disease
– Encephalitis
Class Arachnida
Arachnid Diversity
• Scorpions
• Pseudoscorpions
• Daddy longlegs
Class Pycnogonida
“Pycnogonids are queer creatures, with queer

habits.” –Paul Meglitsch, zoologist
• Sea spiders
• Marine
• Bear long legs
• Body is mostly prosoma
• Opisthosoma is reduced
Class Pycnogonida
Characteristics
• Body not divided into distinct
regions (tagmata)
• Unique proboscis at the
anterior end, with an opening
at its tip
• Variable numbers of walking
legs among species
Class Pycnogonida
Characteristics
• Lack specialized respiratory or excretory systems
• Complete digestive system
• Chelicerae, palps and 4 pairs of walking legs
• Ovigers : posterior part of the head used by both
sexes to groom the other legs and the trunk and used
by males to carry eggs
Class Pycnogonida
• Larva : parasitic
– hosts include hydroid polyps,
anemones and jellyfish
• Adults : mostly free-living
– Carnivorous : prey on moss
animals, colonial hydrozoans
and sponges
Phylum Arthropoda
– Class Trilobita
– Class Arachnida
– Class Myriapoda
– Class Insecta
– Class Crustacea
Subphylum Mandibulata
Defining Characteristics: Appendages on the third head
segment are modified as mandibles, for chewing or
grinding food and retinula of compound eyes contains 8
cells.
Class Insecta
Defining Characteristics: Fusion of one pair of head
appendages (the second maxillae) to form a lower lip (the
labium) and loss of all abdominal appendages
Class Insecta
• a.k.a. Class Hexapoda

• ~ 1 million described species
• Found in every known terrestrial and
freshwater habitat
– Found even as ectoparasites on seals and sea birds
in the Antartic
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
• Wingless insects (a = G: without; pteron= G:wings)
• Without pronounced metamorphosis stage
• Some without tracheae
• Recent studies on mitochondrial DNA suggest
that some of these animals arose from an
ancestor common to insects and crustacean
before the evolution of insect
– They therefore are NOT INSECTS
• Independent invasion of land and 6-legged state
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Thysanura (silverfish or bristletails)
• ~400 species
• Very fast runners
• Associate with ants, termites, and bird’s nests
• Fossils nearly 400 million years old
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Collembola (springtails)
• Very small insects (few millimeters long)
• Characteristic jumping organ or furcula
• Only 6 body segments
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Protura (coneheads)
• Less than 2 mm in size
• Wingless and eyeless
• Lives in decomposing vegetation
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Diplura (two-pronged bristletails)
• Less than 4 mm in size
• White, wingless and eyeless
• Malpighian tubules absent
Class Insecta
Subclass Pterygota
• Literally, winged Insects (pteron = G: wing)
• All from winged ancestors
– Many species with wings secondarily lost
– Some species with wings secondarily reaquired
27 orders
– Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
– Order Odonata (damselflies and dragonflies)
– Order Blattaria (cockroaches)
– Order Mantodea (mantids)
– Order Isoptera (termites)
– Order Grylloblattaria
– Order Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets)
– Order Phasmida (stick insects)
– Order Dermaptera (earwigs)
– Order Embiidina (embiids)
– Order Plecoptera (stoneflies)
– Order Psocoptera (book lice and bark lice)
– Order Anoplura (sucking lice)
27 orders (cont.)
– Order Mallophaga (chewing lice)
– Order Thysanoptera (thrips)
– Order Hemiptera (bugs)
– Order Homoptera (cicadas and amphids)
– Order Neuroptera (ant lions)
– Order Coleoptera (beetles)
– Order Strepsiptera
– Order Mecoptera (snow fleas)
– Order Siphonaptera (fleas)
– Order Diptera (flies)
– Order Trichoptera (caddisflies)
– Order Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies)
– Order Hymenoptera (wasps, ants, bees)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Ephemeroptera (mayflies)
• Non-feeding short-lived adults
• Larvae develop in freshwater in
several years
– Can have as many as 55 distinct
stages
• Only insect order to have wings in
larval stage
• Cannot fold wings onto body
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Odonata
• suborder Zygoptera (damselflies) and
suborder Anisoptera (dragonflies)
• Also cannot fold wings onto abdomen
• Gilled nymphs found in freshwater
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Blattaria (cockroaches)
• Most of 4000 species are tropical
– Few are house pests
• Many are omnivorous
– Some specialize to feed on wood
• Some harbor protozoan
symbionts in their hindgut
• Many are wingless
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Mantodea (mantids)
• All 2000 species prey on other insects
• Nymphs resemble miniature adults
– They develop without pronounced metamorphosis
• Adult males have 2 pairs of wings. Females
have none.
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Isoptera (termites)
• “white ants”
• Evolved from wood-eating cockroaches
– Also house symbiotic protozoans and bacteria that
digest cellulose
• Eusocial (up to 1 million individuals in a colony)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Grylloblattaria
• Wingless omnivores
• Found only in cold environments
– Glaciers and ice caves
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets)
• 20 000 species
• Some “stridulate”
– Produces species-specific
song by rubbing specialized
portions of their wings
• Have large hindlimbs
specialized for jumping
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Phasmida (stick insects)
• Infamous for mimicry of
stems of plants on which
they feed
• Ability to alter body
coloration with each molt
according to surroundings
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Dermaptera (earwigs)
•Free living herbivores or carnivores
•Parasitic or commensal on bats and rodents
•Many lack wings
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Embiidina (embiids)
• Silk spinning insects
• Live mostly in silk lined soil, wood or leaf litter
• Males with wings, females wingless
• Detritivores
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Plecoptera (stoneflies)
• Life cycle mostly in larval stage, adult stage
only for mating and laying
• Class I Pollutant indicator
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Psocoptera (book lice and bark lice)
• Not parasitic
• Feed on algae, mold, lichens, pollen or dead
insects
• Live in decaying organic matter in the tropics
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Anoplura (sucking lice)
• Blood sucking ectoparasites
• Small and wingless
• Host always mammals including
humans and can cause damage to
livestock
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Mallophaga (chewing lice)
• Wingless parasites of birds and mammals
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Thysanoptera (thrips)
• Some species winged, others not
• Herbivorous, may transmit diseases among
plants
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Hemiptera (bugs)
• True bugs
• Major agricultural pests; Transmit
diseases; Some beneficial
• Herbivorous, carnivorous or
ectoparasitic
• Only open ocean insects
in this order
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Homoptera (cicadas and amphids)
• Herbivorous, some with specific plant hosts
• Species dependent on plants for reproduction,
nutrition and some agricultural pests
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Neuroptera (Dobson flies, antlions)
• Primitive holometabolous insects
• Larvae aquatic with silken cocoons secreted
from Malphigian tubules
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Coleoptera (beetles)
• Largest of all insect orders
• “God Has an Inordinate
Fondness for Beetles”
• 2 pairs of wings, front pair
protective rear pair for flying
• Produce sound through
stridulation
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Superorder Holometabola
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Neuroptera
• 5100 spp.
• 21 families
• Dobson flies, lacewings, ant lions
and snake flies lacewing
• primitive holometabolous insects

• aquatic larvae - secret silken cocoons
from Malpighian tubules
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Coleoptera
• 360,000 spp.
• 153 families
• the beetles - largest order
• most have two pairs of wings - front pair as
protective sheath for the rear pair (for flying)
• produce sounds in various ways (e.g. stridulation -
rubbing specialized body parts together)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Strepsiptera
• nearly 400 spp. Elenchus tenuicornis (SEM)
• 8 families
• holometabolous insects with “twisted wings”
• females: wingless, often legless, endoparasites of
other insects
• males: winged (front pair greatly reduced) and free
living
• larvae: 6-legged, <300 µm long
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Strepsiptera
• nearly 400 spp.
• 8 families
other insects
living
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Strepsiptera
• nearly 400 spp.
• 8 families
other insects
living
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Strepsiptera
• nearly 400 spp.
• 8 families Halictophagus sp. female with emergent triungulin in cicadellid host

other insects
living
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Strepsiptera
• nearly 400 spp.
• 8 families Stichotrema dallatorreanum Hofeneder free-living larva

other insects
living
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Mecoptera
• about 500 spp.
8-9 families
• scorpion flies, snow fleas
forest insects that feed on nectar or other
insects
• male abdomen ends in an upward Boreus californicus female
pointed curve, but do not sting
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Mecoptera
• about 500 spp.
8-9 families
• scorpion flies, snow fleas
forest insects that feed on nectar or other
insects
• male abdomen ends in an upward
pointed curve, but do not sting
Panorpa vulgaris
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Siphonaptera
• ~2000 spp., 15 families
• fleas, jiggers
• wingless, holometabolous, biting and blood-sucking insects
• parasitic (usually ectoparasitic) on warm-blooded
animals/mammals
• larvae typically not parasitic and pupate within silken
cocoons
• vectors & vehicles for transferring diseases
• obligate intermediate hosts for tapeworms
• lack compound eyes
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Siphonaptera
• fleas, jiggers
animals/mammals
cocoons
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Siphonaptera
• fleas, jiggers
animals/mammals
cocoons
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Siphonaptera
• fleas, jiggers
• wingless, holometabolous, biting and blood-sucking
insects
animals/mammals
cocoons
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Siphonaptera
• fleas, jiggers
• wingless, holometabolous, biting and blood-sucking
insects
animals/mammals
• larvae typically not parasitic and pupate within
silken cocoons
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Diptera
• 125,000-150,000 spp.
• 162 families
• e.g. mosquitoes, gnats, black and green-flies, no-see-ums, botflies, fruit, dung
and house flies
• posterior pair of club-shaped reduced wings (halteres) for balancing during
flight and only one pair of flying wings
• occur worldwide and in unlikely places (oil seeps, hot springs and seafloor)
• larvae with diversity of feeding patterns, including leaf-mining, predation,
detritus feeding, ecto- and endo-parasitism (maggots)
• agricultural pests and transmit diseases (malaria, typhoid, yellow fever,
dysentery)
• also beneficial - eat/parasitize insect pests, pollinators, destroy weeds
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Diptera
• Eristalis tenax larvae (rat-tailed maggot)
125,000-150,000 spp.
• 162 families
and house flies
dysentery)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Diptera
Malaria (vector: Anopheles mosquito)
• 125,000-150,000 spp.
• 162 families
and house flies
dysentery)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Diptera
• 125,000-150,000 spp.
• 162 families Hoverfly
and house flies
dysentery)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Trichoptera
• 7000 spp.
• ~40 families
• caddisflies
• adults resemble small moths,
feed exclusively on liquids
• larvae and pupae generally
aquatic, developmental
stages of some species are
fully terrestrial
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Trichoptera
• 7000 spp.
• ~40 families
• caddisflies
• adults resemble small moths,
feed exclusively on liquids
• larvae and pupae generally
aquatic, developmental
stages of some species are
fully terrestrial
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Lepidoptera
• 160,000 spp.
• 137 families
• butterflies and moths
• some female species are wingless
Female Bagworm moth
• many are strictly nocturnal
• larvae typically feed on plants or plant
products but some prey on other
insects and animals (e.g.
Hyposmucoma mollscivora)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Lepidoptera
• 160,000 spp.
• 137 families
• butterflies and moths
• some female species are wingless
• many are strictly nocturnal
• larvae typically feed on plants or plant
products but some prey on other
insects and animals (e.g.
Hyposmucoma mollscivora)
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Hymenoptera
• 130,000 spp.
Melaleuca sawfly (Lophyrotoma zonalis)
• 99 families
• SUBORDER SYMPHYTA
• 14 families
• sawflies
• larvae/caterpillars feed on terrestrial
plant tissues and specialize on
particular plant groups/species
• adults prey on other insects Tenthredo marginella
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Hymenoptera
• 130,000 spp.
• 99 families
• SUBORDER APOCRITA
• 75 families
• wasps, ants, bees
• adults as nectar feeders, some suck
the body juices from other arthropods
• white grubs or maggots feed in or on
the bodies of a host arthropod or its
larvae
• others develop within plant galls,
fruits, seeds
Class Insecta
Subclass Apterygota
Order Hymenoptera
• 130,000 spp.
• 99 families
• SUBORDER SYMPHYTA
• 14 families
• sawflies
• larvae/caterpillars feed on terrestrial
plant tissues and specialize on
particular plant groups/species
• adults prey on other insects
Class Crustacea
Defining Characteristics: Head bears 5 pairs of
appendages, including 2 pairs of antennae; development
includes a triangular larval form bearing 3 pairs of
appendages and a single medial eyes
Class Crustacea
GENERAL BODY PLAN OF CRUSTACEAN
Malacostrocans are tripartite- body divided by head, thorax, and abdomen
HEAD:
•First pair of antennae is homologous to those of insects
•Second pair of antennae is unique to the crustaceans
• functions, including sensory, locomotion or feeding.
•a pair of compound eyes
•mouthparts:
• a pair of mandibles –crushing food
• 2 pairs of maxillae – generate water current and manipulate food
THORAX:
•Maxillipeds- first three pairs of thoracic segments
• function in handling food
• Walking legs- 5 pairs of appendages strengthened for walking protection
chelipeds- for protection
ABDOMEN (6 pairs of appendages)
•Pleopods- first 5 pairs
•Uropods- last pair
• with a terminal telson that form a tail fan - serve as rudders during locomotion
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
•appendages of the crustaceans are biramous:
• outer exopodite – less well developed
• inner endopodite
•Protopodite portion proximal to branch point
•Epopodites – protuberances of protopodite used as gills
•Carapace - extremely hardened exoskeleton, which is impregnated with calcium carbonate

• locomotion
Class Crustacea
Subclass Cirripedia
Defining Characteristics:
Class Crustacea
Subclass Cirripedia
• Commonly known as barnacles

• Exclusively sedentary and marine
• Affixed to living or non living substrate
• Head and 1st antennae reduced, 2nd absent
• Most species with thick CaCo3 shell
Class Crustacea
Subclass Cirripedia
• “Fouling” organisms which create much

drag on ships
• Shell made of different plates namely the
carina, rostrum, scuta and terga
• Scuta and tega moveable
• Feeding appendages – cirri, filtering
structures
Class Crustacea
Subclass Cirripedia
Class Crustacea
Subclass Cephalocarida
Class Crustacea
Subclass Cephalochorida
• Most primitive of living crustaceans

• Marine, bottom dwellers
• Physically very small <3.7mm
• Suspension feeders
Class Crustacea
Subclass Malacostraca
Thorax – 8 segements
Abdomen – 6-7 segments plus telson
Appendages on the sixth abdominal segment are
flattened to form uropods
Class Crustacea
• Order Stomatopoda
- active predators, violent carnivores
- abdominal appendages with conspicuous
gills
- second pair of thoracic legs extremely
powerful, modified for breaking hard
shelled prey such as molluscs or fellow
crustaceans
Class Crustacea
− Kill prey with blinding speed

− Raptorial claws reach speeds of
1000cm/second
− Resemble praying mantis and called mantis
shrimps
− Jointed head, ability of independent
movement of anterior and posterior
regions
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
• Order Thermosbaenacea
- found in hot saline springs or in cold
freshwater caves
- ex. Thermosbaena
Class Crustacea
• Order Isopoda
− No carapace
− Single pair of maxillipeds
− Uniramous first antennae
− Compound eyes when present not
stalked
− Dorsoventrally flattened
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
• Order Amphipoda
− Laterally flattened
− No carapace
− Compound eyes sessile
− Gills found on thorax attached to
pereopods
− In many species, coxa of anterior
appendages flattened into large sheet
Class Crustacea
• Order Euphausiacea
-krill, major food source of baleen whales,
squid, true shrimp
-all species marine, very common
-8 pairs of thoracic walking legs
-thoracic appendages with conspicous,
feathery gills
-remarkably tolerant of starvation
-certain species exhibit bioluminesence
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
• Order Decapoda
− 10 thoracic legs
− Biramous appendages
− Commercially important species of
shrimps, lobsters, crabs, crayfish and
include hermit crabs
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
Subclass Branchipoda
Class Crustacea
Subclass Branchiopoda
• “gill” – “foot”
• Freshwater
• Coxa of the thoracic appendage –
modified to form a flattened paddle
• for gas exchange and locomotion
• Body enclosed by a bivalve carapace
• Some members lack this carapace
Class Crustacea
Subclass Branchiopoda
Brine Shrimp (Artemia salina)
• can survive salinities up to 0.1 to 10 times that of
open ocean water
• Fertilized eggs are called “sea monkeys”
Fairy Shrimp
• Restricted to harsh environments
• Produced eggs that can tolerate harsh temperature
and dessication
Class Crustacea
Focus on Daphnia
ORDER CLADOCERA
• 50 % of all Branchiopods are from the Order
Cladocera, water fleas
• Daphnia
Class Crustacea
Focus on Daphnia
• Body:
– Covered by bivalved carapace
– Head is protruding
– Pair of second antennae to propel the animal
– Single compound in
– 1st and 2nd maxillae is reduced
– Thoracic region:
• 5-6 pairs – generate feeding and respiratory currents
• Food is filtered thorugh setae
Class Crustacea
Daphnia: A Closer Look
• Daphnia
– feed on particles found
floating in the water
– foods are free-living
algae, bacteria and fungi.
– In the summer months,
they can often be seen
"blooming" in ponds and
lakes as the
concentration of algae
builds up.
Class Crustacea
• According to the Moshe Gopheneding on the in

his article “Feeding of Daphnia on
Chlamydomonas and Chilorobium” from Nature
– The rate of ingestion of suspended particles is
influenced by the size
– Bacteria is ingested faster than the algae
Class Crustacea
• Their prolificity is due to a great extent to their ability to
replicate by parthenogenicity.
• Parthenogeneticity
– the ability to self-replicate without fertilisation of any form
– the offspring are exact genetic replicas of the parent (clones
– take advantage of good conditions (food, temperature, etc)
as soon as they arise.
– Happens during the late spring, summer and early autumn
(depending on temperature, food availability and presence of
waste products of their metabolism)
– Developing embryos are often visible in the mother's body
without the aid of a microscope.
Class Crustacea
• These eggs develop into small embryos which then
go into suspended animation, and are shed with
the carapace as dark brown/black saddle-shaped
cases known as ephippia
• According to Victor Alekseev & Windfried Lampert
in their article “ Maternal control of resting-egg
production in Daphnia” from Nature (2001)
– Mothers can relay photoperiod and food information to
their offspring through and can influnce the production
of resting eggs in the next generation
Class Crustacea
Class Crustacea
• Happens during warm and turbulent waters

• Induced also by the release of kairomones of predators
• To prevent predation of Daphnia invertebrate predators during summer period
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
Head and body enclosed in bivalve carapace
Trunk -possesses no more than 2 pairs of limbs
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
• Small (rarely more than 1 mm)

• Marine and freshwater (some are terrestrial)
• Mostly head
• Rest of the body greatly reduced
• They could be:
– Free-living - mostly (6650 spp.) are
– Commensals- with other crustacean and echinoderms (picture)
– Planktonic- few extant species ; uses 2 pairs of antennae
– Benthic bottom dweller - some even burrows within the
sediment
– Fossils - Another 10000 species are known to be fossils which
extends back to 530 million years ago
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
• Feeding:
– Carnivorous
– Suspension-feeding
– Scavenging
– Herbivorous
• Body:
• 2 appendages
• No sign of segmentation externally
• Encased in calcified, bivalaved carapace
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
• Several morphological features of ostracods
– carapace
• ovate, kidney-shaped or bean-shaped
• it is divided into a right and left valve, one being, commonly
slightly larger than the other partially overlapping it, and hinged at
the dorsal margin.
– hinge is an important feature in terms of taxonomy and
classification.
– adductor muscle- when alive, it closes the two valves of
the carapace
– sensilla (hairs or bristles) - senses their surroundings;
these project through the carapace via pore canals, at the
margins these are called marginal pore canals.
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
• Eyespots or eyes tubercles on their
carapaces have clear eyespots or raised eye
tubercles.
• Sexual Reproduction- show sexual
dimorphism
– males and females of the same species have
carapaces of different size and shape through
molting
• Asexual reproduction - parthenogenesis.
Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda
Thorax -6 segements
Abdomen - 5 segments
No abdominal appendage
Bears "naupliar eye"
Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda
• 8500 species are marine; some are freshwater

and terrestrial
• Most abundant animals on earth
• Most important herbivores in the ocean
• Feed on phytoplankton
• Small (1-2mm)
• 2/3 are planktonic in the ocean
Class Crustacea
Subclass Ostracoda
• Body:
– Single median eye on the head
• 3 lens bearing ocelli
• 2 of which look forward and upward
• 1 is directed downward
• Lack gills
• Lack abdominal appendages
Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda
• Special functions of appendages

– First antennae
• Male: hinged - to capture female for mating
– Fifth thoracic appendages
• Male: terminate in a claw- to hold the female during
mating
*see Pechenik, p.
Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda
• Zooplankton
– Locomotion- by the biramous second antennae
– Feeding- collection of phytoplankton through the activities of
the first and second antennae
• Meiobenthos - living in association with small animals

– Locomotion -thoracic appendages fro walking
– Feeding -scrape food particles
• Parastic Copepods
– 25 % of species parasitize vertebrates and invertebrates
– Body are modified
Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda

• Role in the food chain
• The are at the base of the food chain
• Major source of food of fishes

Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda
Calanoid copepod Cycloid copepod

Class Crustacea
Subclass Copepoda

Parasitic Copepoda continued and Branchiura: (p. 203)
A. Lernaea barnimiana (9 mm long).
C,D. Anchors of Lernaea cyprinacea from jaws of
Oreochromis spp. from Lake Victoria (after Fryer,
1961).
E. Lernaea hardingi (10 mm long)
F. Opistholernaea laterobranchialis (14 mm long, after
Fryer, 1959)
.G. Lernaea palati (8 mm long, after Fryer, 1956).
H. Lernaea lophiara anchors (after Harding, 1950).
I. Lernaea barili, anchors (after Harding, 1950).
J. Development of Lernaea cyprinacea (from common
carp, Israel): 1–2. Nauplii; 3. free copepodite; 4–6.
Copepodites attached to gills. 8. Premature males
and females; 9. Mature male; 10. Early
metamorphosing female.
K. Sciaenophilus pharaonis (12 mm long, after Humes,
1957).

Class Crustacea
Subclass Pentastomida
All species are parasitic in nasal passages of vertebrate
host
Body has 2 pair of appendages with claws
Class Crustacea

• "five"-"mouths "
– Actually it's one mouth and 4 hooks
• Adults are internal parasites of vertebrates
• Body modified as adaptations for a complete
endoparasistic
• Larvae are also parasitic
• Extreme reduction of all revealing ontogenetic
characteristics

Class Crustacea
• Recently added to the Arthropods
• Why?
– Exoskeleton that id periodically molted
– Metameric , striated musculature
– Spacious hemocoel
– Larval stages possessing 3 appendages
– Sperm morphology is related to the Branchiura
• Cuticle studies and analyses on the DNA coding for 18S

ribosomal RNA suggests that they are highly modified
crustaceans

Class Crustacea
• Its unarthropod characteristics :

– Larval legs are not jointed
– Adult is legless
– Only adult appendages are the 4 pairs of anterior
chitinous hooks
– cuticle is not chitinous
Class Crustacea
• Parasitizes the lungs and nasal passages usually
of reptiles , and some species specialized in the
same areas of amphibians, birds, and some
mammals
• Parasites uses the hook to cling on the host's

tissues
• Parasites are gonochoristic

• Embryogenesis occurs in within a shelled capsule
Class Crustacea
• Pentastomiasis is the general name for a

collection of syndromes caused by any of the
Pentastomids
– Linguatula serrata
Class Crustacea
• 1 Adults live in the nose of dogs (and rarely
of man).
• 2 Embryonated eggs are set free via nasal
mucus and/or feces. The thin outer eggshell
is left out in drawings, since it disappears
soon.
• 3 If intermediate hosts swallow eggs, the
four-legged primary larva hatches and
migrates via blood vessels to the inner
organs. Humans may also become accidental
intermediate hosts.
• 4–11 Larval stages 2–11 are included in a
capsule of host origin and grow after 9
molts. When final hosts ingest raw (or
uncooked) meat of intermediate hosts, the
adult stages develop inside the nasal tract by
using its . Infected humans suffer from the
Halzoun syndrome.
• Stage three of larva can can migrate and
cause damage by perforating organs
Class Crustacea
• Symptoms:
– pain and itching of the throat and ears
– Headaches
– vomiting
– facial edema,
– occasionally loss of hearing.
• The symptoms usually subside within 7-10

days
Class Crustacea
• In one species, intermediate host can be

bypassed
– Exemplified by the pentastomid in Norwegian
reindeer,
– Larva developed and become infective within the
definitive host
– In female host, the larvae can penetrate the
placental tissue to infect the next generation of
reindeer
Other Features of Arthropod
Biology
Striped bark scorpion

Order: Scorpiones
Family: Buthidae
Genus and species: Centruroides vittatus (Say)
REPRODUCTION and DEVELOPMENT
• Sexual reproduction
predominates
• Internal fertilization
• Most are Gonochoristic
– Some hermaproditic
• Parthenogenesis
– Insects, Branchiopods,
Copepods
Larval stages: Nauplius Larva
• Free living
• Triangular in Shape
• Crustacean carapace
• Median eye with 3
ocelli
• After periodical
molting it
metamorphoses
intro a
morphologically
dinstinct larva
Copepods
Acartia
Barnacles
Parasitic Barnacles
• Kentrogon pierces host cuticle

•Injects microscopic
multicellular vermiform mass
•Mass ruptures to release large
mobile cells
•One cell develops extensively
on the host
Sacculina
Parasitic Barnacles
• large reproductive mass

emerges from host
•Small aperture develops and
attracts male cyprids
•Mass of tissue discharged from
the male antennae
•Juvenile male migrates within
the female mantle cavity
(Refer to fig. 14.36 pg.376 Pechenik)
Parasitic Barnacles
Decapods
• Not all crustaceans produce free living
nauplius larva but all pass through naupliar
stages
Zoea Larva in Shrimps
• Shrimps
• Brood their embryos beneath their abdomen
• Releases zoea larva
» Pair of large compound eyes
» Spiny carapace
Megalopa in Crabs
• Crabs
• After numeros zoeal stages metamorphoses into a
megalopa larva
» Similar to the adult but the abdomen is not tucked under
the thorax
Others without Larval Stages
• Isopods, Amphipods,
peracarid malacostracans
• Young emerges as miniature
adults
• Stays in marsupium
Fertilization
• Internal fertilization
• Transfer of sperm through spermatophores
• Fertilized eggs need protection
• Females engage in high protein diet during
oogenesis - blood meal before oviposition
• Eggs inserted to various substrates via
ovipositor
Insect Development
• Instars – developmental stages of insects

• Conspicuously true for those that undergo
metamorphosis
• Gradual change in insects
• Instars are called nymphs
• Naiads – aquatic nymphs
• Ex. Grasshoppers, dragonflies, cockcroaches
• Radical and abrupt change
• Larva  Pupa  Adult morph
• Ex. Butterflies, wasps, ants
• With Imaginal discs
Digestion
Class Crustacea
• Cardiac stomach and
pyloric stomach
• Food ground by gastric
mill – chitinous
toothed ridges
• With stiff setae
• hepatopancreas
Excretion
Class Merostomata Class Arachnida
• 4 pairs of coxal glands • Coxal glands – spherical sacs
• Adjacent to gizzard • With malpighian tubules –
• Discharged through pores at silk production
the base of the last pair of • Nephrocytes – phagocytize
walking legs waste particles
• Major waste product is
guanine
Excretion
Orders Chilopoda and Diplopoda Class Insecta
• Malpighian tubules • Malpighian tubules
• Ammonia major waste • Wastes incorporated into
product the cuticle, shed by ecdysis
• Waste as water insoluble
uric acid
Excretion
Class Crustacea
• Diffusion through gills
• Ammonia major product
• Antennal glands/green
glands
• Maxillary glands
• Similar to coxal glands
Blood Pigments
• Blood lack
respiratory pigments
• Gas exchange
through trachaee
• Hemocyanin
• Hemoglobin

Phylum Arthopoda

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Phylum Arthopoda

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Phylum Arthropoda

Green June beetle

• CILIA: completely lost both in

• Arachnids extend their legs by

• In crustaceans: ecdysteroid production inhibited

• 6 classes, 80 orders, 2,400 families

THE TRILOBITE BODY PLAN (DORSAL)

 specialization increased as more

U  basic principles of vision

THE BODY PLAN (ABDOMEN)

• More than 70000 living species described

– abdomen or opisthosoma (posterior)

“Pycnogonids are queer creatures, with queer

• a.k.a. Class Hexapoda

• primitive holometabolous insects

• holometabolous insects with “twisted wings”

• holometabolous insects with “twisted wings”

•Carapace - extremely hardened exoskeleton, which is impregnated with calcium carbonate

• Commonly known as barnacles

• “Fouling” organisms which create much

• Most primitive of living crustaceans

− Kill prey with blinding speed

• According to the Moshe Gopheneding on the in

• Happens during warm and turbulent waters

• Small (rarely more than 1 mm)

• 8500 species are marine; some are freshwater

• Special functions of appendages

• Meiobenthos - living in association with small animals

Calanoid copepod Cycloid copepod

• Cuticle studies and analyses on the DNA coding for 18S

• Its unarthropod characteristics :

• Parasites uses the hook to cling on the host's

• Parasites are gonochoristic

• Pentastomiasis is the general name for a

• The symptoms usually subside within 7-10

• In one species, intermediate host can be

Striped bark scorpion

• Kentrogon pierces host cuticle

• large reproductive mass

• Instars – developmental stages of insects

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