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Fallas en Materiales
Fallas en Materiales
Analysis
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?
Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Occurs with plastic deformation
Brittle fracture
Occurs with Little or no plastic
deformation
Thus they are Catastrophic meaning
they occur without warning!
Very
Ductile
Moderately
Ductile
Brittle
Large
Moderate
Small
Ductile fracture is
nearly always
desirable!
%Ra or %El
Ductile:
warning before
fracture
Brittle:
No
warning
Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.
Resulting
fracture
surfaces
void
nucleation
void growth
and linkage
fracture
50
50mm
mm
(steel)
Inclusion
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
shearing
at surface
100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)
cup-and-cone fracture
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.
brittle fracture
Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated
Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
304 S. Steel
(metal)
(within grains)
316 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
National Lab.)
Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977,
Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
160 mm
Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
typical ceramic
0.1
materials
materials
Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.
TS
larger
TS
smaller
(Charpy Specimen)
final height
initial height
Impact Energy
More Ductile
High strength materials ( y > E/150)
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Figure 8.3
a
m 2o
t
t
1/ 2
K t o
where
t = radius of curvature of
crack tip
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.
o
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
w
max
r,
fillet
radius
2.5
2.0
increasing w/h
1.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
sharper fillet radius
r/h
Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the
crack.
plastic
deformed
region
brittle
i.e., m >c
orKt > Kc
2E s
c
1/ 2
where
E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack
Kc = c/ 0
Fracture Toughness
Metals/
Alloys
100
K Ic (MPa m 0.5 )
70
60
50
40
30
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
C-C(|| fibers) 1
Steels
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys
20
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
C/C( fibers) 1
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
Glass/SiC(w) 6
10
7
6
5
4
Diamond
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
0.7
0.6
0.5
PET
PP
PVC
Composites/
fibers
PC
<100>
Si crystal
<111>
Glass -soda
Concrete
PS
Polyester
Glass 6
design
Kc
Y amax
amax
amax
fracture
no
fracture
Kc
Ydesign
fracture
amax
no
fracture
Use...
Kc
c
Y amax
Design B
--use same material
--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
112 MPa
9 mm
amax
A c
4 mm
amax
Ka Y a a
here
Y 1
Y a a 1*1030* 3.141*.0005 40.82
Since K a < K1c the part won't fail!
K1c Y c a
K1c
Y c
a .0009m .9mm
54.8
1*1030
3.1416
Figure 8.7 Two mechanisms for improving fracture toughness of ceramics by crack
arrest. (a) Transformation toughening of partially stabilized zirconia involves the stressinduced transformation of tetragonal grains to the monoclinic structure, which has a larger
specific volume. The result is a local volume expansion at the crack tip, squeezing the
crack shut and producing a residual compressive stress. (b) Microcracks produced during
fabrication of the ceramic can blunt the advancing crack tip
Fatigue behavior:
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress
specimen compression on top
bearing
bearing
motor
counter
flex coupling
tension on bottom
max
m
min
S
time
max 5340
min
6.4*10 2
5340
3
6.4*10
5340
3.22 105
5340
165.99 MPa
3.22 10
165.99 MPa
0
2
2
r stress range Max min 331.99 MPa
a stress amplitude S r 2 165.99 MPa
S = stress amplitude
unsafe
Sfat
safe
case for
steel (typ.)
10 3
10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure
10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure
case for
Al (typ.)
10
6.4*10 2
5340
min 5340
165.99MPa
2
3
3.22 105
6.4*10
0
2
2
r Max min 331.99 MPa
a S r 2 165.99 MPa
Examining Fig (right) at S = 165.99
m
For polymers, we
consider fatigue
life to be (only)
106 cycles to
failure thus fatigue
strength is the
stress that will
lead to failure
after 106 cycles
Fatigue Mechanism
Cracks in Material grows incrementally
da
m
K
dN
typ. 1 to 6
~ a
Adapted from
from D.J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.
Figure 8.12 Illustration of crack growth with number of stress cycles, N, at two
different stress levels. Note that, at a given stress level, the crack growth rate,
da/dN, increases with increasing crack length, and, for a given crack length such as
a1, the rate of crack growth is significantly increased with increasing magnitude of
stress.
S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.
Increasing
--Method 2: carburizing
shot
put
surface
into
compression
2. Remove stress
concentrators.
bad
bad
C-rich gas
better
better
Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.
Figure 8.18 The drop in strength of glasses with duration of load (and without
cyclic-load applications) is termed static fatigue.
Figure 8.19 The role of H2O in static fatigue depends on its reaction with the
silicate network. One H2O molecule and one Si OSi segment generate two
SiOH units, which is equivalent to a break in the network.
Figure 8.20 Comparison of (a) cyclic fatigue in metals and (b) static
fatigue in ceramics.
SUMMARY
Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic :