PAN African e-Network Project

PGD IT
BASIC MATHEMATICS
Semester - I
Session - 1

Dr. Nitin Pandey

Detailed Syllabus
1. Introduction to sets (sets of numbers (N, Z, Q etc)),
subsets, proper subsets, power sets, universal set, null
set, equality of two sets, Venn diagrams .
2. Set operations (union, intersection, complement and
relative complement)
3. Laws of algebra of sets (The idempotent laws, the
associative laws, the commutative laws, the identity
laws, the complement laws (i.e.: AAc = E, AAc = ,
(Ac)c = A, Ec = , c = E), De Morgan's laws) proofs of
the laws using labelled general Venn diagram, proofs of
results using the laws

Instructional Objectives
Illustrate properties of set algebra using
Venn-diagrams.
Prove various useful results of set algebra.

Session Objectives
1. Introduction of sets
2. Representation of sets
3. Types of sets
4. Subsets and proper subsets
5. Universal sets
6. Euler-Venn diagram
7. Algebra of sets (i.e. union, intersection, difference etc.)
8. Complement of set
9. Laws of algebra of sets
10.De Morgans laws

Introduction to Sets
George Cantor (1845-1915), in 1895, was
the first to define a set formally.
Definition - Set
A set is a unordered collection of zero of more
distinct well defined objects.

The objects that make up a set are called

elements or members of the set.

Introduction to Set Theory

A set is a structure, representing an
unordered collection (group, plurality) of
zero or more distinct (different) objects.
Set theory deals with operations between,
relations among, and statements about
sets.

Basic notations for sets

For sets, well use variables S, T, U,
We can denote a set S in writing by listing all of
its elements in curly braces:
{a, b, c} is the set of whatever 3 objects are denoted
by a, b, c.

Set builder notation: For any proposition P(x)

over any universe of discourse, {x|P(x)} is the
set of all x such that P(x).
e.g., {x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 }

Examples for Sets

Standard Sets:
Natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, }
Integers Z = {, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, }
Positive Integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, }
Real Numbers R = {47.3, -12, , }
Rational Numbers Q = {1.5, 2.6, -3.8, 15, }
(correct definition will follow)

Specifying Sets

There are two ways to specify a set

1. If possible, list all the members of the set.
E.g. A = {a, e, i, o, u}

2. State those properties which characterized the

members in the set.
E.g. B = {x : x is an even integer, x > 0}
We read this as B is the set of x such that x is an even
integer and x is grater than zero. Note that we cant list
all the members in the set B.
C = {All the students who sat for BIT IT1101 paper in 2003}
D = {Tall students who are doing BIT} is not a set
because Tall is not well defined. But
E = {Students who are taller than 6 Feet and who are doing
BIT} is a set.

Basic properties of sets

Sets are inherently unordered:
No matter what objects a, b, and c denote,
{a, b, c} = {a, c, b} = {b, a, c} =
{b, c, a} = {c, a, b} = {c, b, a}.

All elements are distinct (unequal);

multiple listings make no difference!
{a, b, c} = {a, a, b, a, b, c, c, c, c}.
This set contains at most 3 elements!

Some Properties of Sets

The order in which the elements are presented
in a set is not important.
A = {a, e, i, o, u} and
B = {e, o, u, a, i} both define the same set.

The members of a set can be anything.

In a set the same member does not appear
more than once.
F = {a, e, i, o, a, u} is incorrect since the element a
repeats.

Some Common Sets

We denote following sets by the following
symbols:
N = The stet of positive integers = {1, 2, 3, }
Z = The set of integers = {,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, }
R = The set of real numbers
Q = The set of rational numbers
C = The set of complex numbers

Some Notation
Consider the set A = {a, e, i, o, u} then
We write a is a member of A as:
aA

We write b is not a member of A as:

bA
Note: b A (b A)

Definition of Set Equality

Two sets are declared to be equal if and only if
they contain exactly the same elements.
In particular, it does not matter how the set is
defined or denoted.
For example: The set {1, 2, 3, 4} =
{x | x is an integer where x>0 and x<5 } =
{x | x is a positive integer whose square
is >0 and <25}

Infinite Sets
Conceptually, sets may be infinite (i.e., not
finite, without end, unending).
Symbols for some special infinite sets:
N = {0, 1, 2, } The natural numbers.
Z = {, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, } The integers.
R = The real numbers, such as
374.1828471929498181917281943125
Infinite sets come in different sizes!

The Empty Set

(null, the empty set) is the unique
set that contains no elements whatsoever.
= {} = {x|False}
No matter the domain of discourse,
we have the axiom
x: x.

Universal Set and Empty Set

The members of all the investigated sets
in a particular problem usually belongs to
some fixed large set. That set is called the
universal set and is usually denoted by U.
The set that has no elements is called the
empty set and is denoted by or {}.
E.g. {x | x2 = 4 and x is an odd integer} =

Venn Diagrams
A pictorial way of representing sets.
The universal set is represented by the
interior of a rectangle and the other sets
are represented by disks lying within the
rectangle.
E.g. A = {a, e, i, o, u}
a u i
e
o

Basic Set Relations: Member of

xS (x is in S) is the proposition that object x
is an lement or member of set S.
e.g. 3N, a{x | x is a letter of the alphabet}

Can define set equality in terms of relation:

S,T: S=T (x: xS xT)
Two sets are equal iff they have all the same
members.
xS : (xS)
x is not in S

Equality of two Sets

A set A is equal to a set B if and only if both
sets have the same elements. If sets A and B
are equal we write: A = B. If sets A and B are
not equal we write A B.
In other words we can say:
A = B (x, xA xB)
E.g.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {3, 4, 1, 3, 5}, C = {1, 3, 5, 4}
D = {x : x N 0 < x < 6}, E = {1, 10/5,
, 22, 5} then A = B =
D = E and A C.
9

Cardinality of a Set
The number of elements in a set is called
the cardinality of a set. Let A be any set
then its cardinality is denoted by |A|
E.g. A = {a, e, i, o, u} then |A| = 5.

Subsets
Set A is called a subset of set B if and
only if every element of set A is also an
element of set B. We also say that A is
contained in B or that B contains A. It is
denoted by A B or B A.
In other words we can say:
(A B) (x, x A x B)

Subset ctd
If A is not a subset of B then it is denoted
by A B or B A
E.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3} and
= {2, 4, 6} then B A and C A
A

5
1 3

Subsets
A B
A is a subset of B
A B if and only if every element of A is also
an element of B.
We can completely formalize this:
A B x (xA xB)
Examples:

A = {3, 9}, B = {5, 9, 1, 3},

A B ? true

A = {3, 3, 3, 9}, B = {5, 9, 1, 3}, A B ? true

A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4},

A B ? false

Subsets
Useful rules:
A = B (A B) (B A)
(A B) (B C) A C (see Venn Diagram)

U
B

Some Properties Regarding

Subsets

For any set A, A U

For any set A, A A
A B B C A C
A= B A B B A

Proper Subsets
Notice that when we say A B then it is
even possible to be A = B.
We say that set A is a proper subset of
set B if and only if A B and A B. We
denote it by A B or B A.
In other words we can say:
(A B) (x, xA xB AB)

Proper (Strict) Subsets & Supersets

ST (S is a proper subset of T) means
that ST but
. Similar for ST.
Example:
{1,2}
{1,2,3}

Venn Diagram equivalent of ST

Venn Diagram for a Proper Subset

Note that if A B then the Venn diagram
depicting those sets is as follows:
B

If A B then the disc showing B may overlap

with the disc showing A where in this case it is
actually A = B

Power Set
The set of all subsets of a set S is called the
power set of S. It is denoted by P(S) or 2 S.
In other words we can say:
P(S) = {x : x S}
E.g. A = {1, 2, 3} then
P(A) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}

Note that |P(S)| = 2|S|.

E.g. |P(A)| = 2|A| = 23 = 8.

Set Operations - Complement

The (absolute) complement of a set A is
the set of elements which belong to the
universal set but which do not belong to A.
This is denoted by Ac or or .
In other words we can say:
Ac = {x : xU xA}

Venn Diagram for the Complement

A
Ac

The Union Operator

For sets A, B, their union AB is the set
containing all elements that are either in A,
or () in B (or, of course, in both).
Formally, A,B: AB = {x | xA xB}.
Note that AB contains all the elements of
A and it contains all the elements of B:
A, B: (AB A) (AB B)

Set Operations - nion

Union of two sets A and B is the set of all
elements which belong to either A or B
or both. This is denoted by A B.
In other words we can say:
A B = {x : xA xB}
E.g. A = {3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 3, 5}
A B = {3, 5, 7, 2, 3, 5} = {2, 3, 5, 7}

Union Examples
{a,b,c}{2,3} = {a,b,c,2,3}
{2,3,5}{3,5,7} = {2,3,5,3,5,7} ={2,3,5,7}

Venn Diagram Representation for

Union
AB
A

35

Set Operations - Intersection

Intersection of two sets A and B is the
set of all elements which belong to both A
and B. This is denoted by A B.
In other words we can say:
A B = {x : xA xB}
E.g. A = {3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 3, 5}
A B = {3, 5}

The Intersection Operator

For sets A, B, their intersection AB is the
set containing all elements that are
simultaneously in A and () in B.
Formally, A,B: AB{x | xA xB}.
Note that AB is a subset of A and it is a
subset of B:
A, B: (AB A) (AB B)

Intersection Examples
{a,b,c}{2,3} = ___

{2,4,6}{3,4,5} = ______
{4}

Venn Diagram Representation for

Intersection
AB
A

5
3

100 people were surveyed. 52 people in a survey owned a

cat. 36 people owned a dog. 24 did not own a dog or cat.
Draw a Venn diagram.
52 + 36 = 88 so
there must be
88 - 76 = 12
people that own
both a dog and
a cat.

universal set is 100 people surveyed

C
40

12

24

24

Set C is the cat owners and Set D is the dog

owners. The sets are NOT disjoint. Some
people could own both a dog and a cat.
Counting Formula:
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A B)

Since 24
did not own
a dog or
cat, there
must be 76
that do.

n(C D) = 76
This n means the
number of elements
in the set

Disjointedness
Two sets A, B are called
disjoint (i.e., unjoined)
iff their intersection is
empty. (AB=)
Example: the set of even
integers is disjoint with
the set of odd integers.

Help, Ive
been
disjointed!

Set Operations - Difference

The difference or the relative complement of a
set B with respect to a set A is the set of
elements which belong to A but which do not
belong to B. This is denoted by A B.
In other words we can say:
A B = {x : xA xB}
E.g. A = {3, 5, 7}, B = {2, 3, 5}
A B = {3, 5, 7} {2, 3, 5} = {7}

Set Difference
For sets A, B, the difference of A and B,
written AB, is the set of all elements that
are in A but not B.
A B : x xA xB
x xA xB
Also called:
The complement of B with respect to A.

Venn Diagram Representation for

Difference
A B
A

5
3

Set Complements
The universe of discourse can itself be
considered a set, call it U.
The complement of A, written , is the
complement of A w.r.t. U, i.e.,Ait is UA.
E.g., If U=N,

{3,5} {0,1,2,4,6,7,...}

More on Set Complements

An equivalent definition, when U is clear:

A {x | x A}

A
U

Cartesian Product
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, a3, , an) is an ordered
collection of objects.
Two ordered n-tuples (a1, a2, a3, , an) and
(b1, b2, b3, , bn) are equal if and only if they contain exactly
the same elements in the same order, i.e. ai = bi for 1 i
n.
The Cartesian product of two sets is defined as:
AB = {(a, b) | aA bB}
Example: A = {x, y}, B = {a, b, c}
AB = {(x, a), (x, b), (x, c), (y, a), (y, b), (y, c)}

Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of two sets is defined as: AB = {(a,
b) | aA bB}
Example:
A = {good, bad}, B = {student, prof}
AB = {

(good, student), (good, prof), (bad, student), (bad, prof)

BA = { (student, good), (prof, good),

(student, bad), (prof, bad)

Cartesian Product
Note that:
A =
A =
For non-empty sets A and B: AB AB BA
|AB| = |A||B|
The Cartesian product of two or more sets is defined as:
A1A2An = {(a1, a2, , an) | aiA for 1 i n}

Set Identities

Identity:
A=A AU=A
Domination: AU=U A=
Idempotent:
AA = A = AA
Double complement:
(
A
)

A
Commutative: AB=BA AB=BA
Associative: A(BC)=(AB)C
A(BC)=(AB)C

Some Properties

A AB and B AB
AB A and AB B
|AB| = |A| + |B| - |AB|
AB BcAc
A B = ABc
If AB = then we say A and B are
disjoint.

Algebra of Sets
Idempotent laws
A A= A
A A= A

Associative laws
(A B) C = A (B C)
(A B) C = A (B C)

Algebra of Sets ctd

Commutative laws
AB=BA
AB=BA

Distributive laws
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)

Algebra of Sets ctd

Identity laws
A=A
AU=A
AU=U
A=

Involution laws
(Ac)c = A

Algebra of Sets ctd

Complement laws
A Ac = U
A Ac =
Uc =
c = U

Algebra of Sets ctd

De Morgans laws
(A B)c = Ac Bc
(A B)c = Ac Bc

Note: Compare these De Morgans laws

with the De Morgans laws that you find in
logic and see the similarity.

Proving Set Identities

To prove statements about sets, of the form
E1 = E2 (where Es are set expressions),
here are three useful techniques:
Prove E1 E2 and E2 E1 separately.
Use logical equivalences.
Use a membership table.

Proofs
Basically there are two approaches in
proving above mentioned laws and any
other set relationship
Algebraic method
Using Venn diagrams

For example lets discuss how to prove

(A B)c = Ac Bc

Proofs Using Algebraic Method

x(AB)c xAB
xA xB
xAc xBc
xAcBc
(AB)c AcBc

()

Proofs Using Algebraic Method

ctd
xAcBc xAc xBc
xA xB
xAB
x(AB)c
AcBc (AB)c
() () (AB)c = AcBc

()

Proofs Using Venn Diagrams

AB
A

4
1

Note that these indicated numbers are

not the actual members of each set.
They are region numbers.

Proofs Using Venn Diagrams ctd

U : 1, 2, 3, 4
A : 1, 2 (i.e. The region for A is 1 and 2)
B : 2, 3
AB : 1, 2, 3
()
(AB)c : 4

Proofs Using Venn Diagrams ctd

Ac : 3, 4
Bc : 1, 4
AcBc : 4
() () (AB)c = AcBc

()

B
andX

C
X

A
andX

B
Class Exercise - 1

Let A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {a, b, c} and

C = {b, d}. Find all sets X such that
(i)

(ii)

(i)

Solution

P B , a , b , c , a, b , a, c , b, c , a, b, c

P C , b , d , b, d
Q X B and X C

X P B and X P C X P B I P C

X , b

(ii) Now, X A and X B

X is subset of A but X is not subset of B.

X P A but x P B X P A P B

Solution contd..

X {d}, {a, d} {b, d}, {c, d}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d},
{b, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}
Here note that to obtain X we have added each
element of P(B) with d which is in A not in B.

B
A

A
B
.
Class Exercise - 2

For any two sets A and B, prove that

Solution

First let A = B. Then

A U B A and A I B A

A UB A I B
A B A UB A I B

Conversely, let A U B A I B.
xA

x A UB
xA I B

x A and x B

x B

...(i)

 A B

Solution contd..

...(ii)

Now let

y B

y A UB
yA I B

y A and y B

yA
BA

...(iii)

From (ii) and (iii), we get A = B

Thus, A U B A I B A B

...(iv)

From (i) and (iv), A U B A I B A B


:7
a
x

N
a
N3aN

.
Class Exercise - 3

If
such that
describe the set

Solution
We have aN ax: x N
3N 3x:x N 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ...
7N 7x:x N 7, 14, 21, 28, ...
Hence,

3N I 7N 21, 42, 63, ... 21x:x N 21N

Note that aN I bN cN where c = LCM of a, b.

A
B

C
AB
AC.

Class Exercise - 4
If A, B and C are any three sets, then
prove that

Solution
Let x be any element of A B I C .
x A B I C x A and x B I C
x A and

xA

x B

or x C

and x B or x A and x C

x A B or x A C
x A B U A C

A B I C A B U A C

...(i)

Solution contd..
Again y be any element of A B U A C .
y A B U A C y A B or y A C

y A and y B or y A and y C
y A and

y B

or y C

y A and

y B I C

A B U A C A B I C

y A B I C
...(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

A B I C A B U A C

Pr oved.

B
.
A

B
C
Class Exercise - 5

Let A, B and C be three sets such that

and
, then prove that
A=CB

Q We have A U B C.

Solution

C B A U B B
A U B I B

A I B U B I B

X Y X I Y

[By distributive law]

A I B U

A I B

= A B
=A

A I B

Pr oved.

B
,C
B

C
A
.
Class Exercise - 6

If A, B and C are the sets such that

then prove that

Solution
Let x be any arbitrary element of C B.
x C B x C and x B
x C and x A
x C A
CB C A

Pr oved.

A B

n
B
A
.
Class Exercise - 7

If A, B and C are the three sets and U

is the universal set such that n(U) =
700, n(A) = 200, n(B) = 300 and, find

Solution
Q A I B A U B

By De Morgans law

n A I B n A U B

n U n A U B

n U n A n B n A I B

= 700 [200 + 300 100]

= 300

Class Exercise - 8
In a class of 35 students, 17 have
taken mathematics, 10 have taken
mathematics but not physics. Find
the number of students who have
taken both mathematics and physics
and the number of students who have
taken physics but not mathematics,
if it is given that each student has
taken either mathematics or physics
or both.

Method I:

Solution

Let M denote the set of students who

have taken mathematics and P be the
set of students who have taken physics.
Given that
n M U P 35, n M 17, n M P 10
We know that n M P n M n M I P
10 17 n M I P
n M I P 17 10 7 7 students have taken

both mathematics and physics.

Solution contd..
Now we want to find n(P M).

n M U P n M n P n M I P
35 = 17 + n(P) 7
n(P) = 35 10 = 25

n P M n P P M I P

= 25 7
= 18

18 students have taken physics but not mathematics.

Solution contd..

Method II:

Venn diagram method:

Given that n M U P a b c 35

...(i)

n(M) = a + b = 17

...(ii)

n(M P) = a = 10

...(iii)

Solution
contd..
We want to find b and c
From (ii) and (iii),
b = 17 10 = 7 7 students have
taken both physics and mathematics.
From (i), 10 + 7 + c = 35
c = 35 17 = 18

18 students have taken physics but not mathematics.

B
?

Class Exercise - 9

If A and B be the two sets containing

3 and 6 elements respectively, what
can be the minimum and maximum
number of elements in

Solution

As we know that,
n A U B n A n B n A I B

n A U B is minimum or maximum accordingly as

n A I B is maximum or minimum respectively.

Case I: When n A I B is minimum, i.e. n A I B = 0

This is possible only when A I B .
n A U B n A n B n A I B
=3+60
=9
Maximum number of elements in A U B = 9

Solution contd..
Case II: When n A I B is maximum
This is possible only when A B . In this case
A UB B

n A U B n B 6

Minimum number of elements in A U B is 6.

Class Exercise - 10
Out of 880 boys in a school, 224 play
cricket, 240 play hockey, and 336 play
basketball. Of the total, 64 play both
basketball and hockey; 80 play cricket
and basketball and 40 play cricket and
hockey; 24 play all the three games.
Find the number of boys who did not
play any game.

Method I:

Solution

Let C, B and H denote the set of boys

playing cricket, basketball and hockey
respectively.
Here given that
n(C) = 224, n(H) = 240, n(B) = 336
n B I H 64, n C I B 80, n C I H 40
n C I B I H 24

Q We know that n C U B U H n C n B n H n C I B
n B I H n C I H n C I B I H

= 224 + 336 + 240 80 64 40 + 24

= 640

Solution contd..

Number of boys not playing any game is

Total number of students n C U B U H
= 880 640 = 240
Method II:
Venn diagram method:
C

a
d

e
g
H

c
f

It is given that
n(C) = a + b + d + e = 224

...(i)

n(H) = d + e + f + g = 240

...(ii)

n(B) = b + c + e + f = 336

...(iii)

Solution contd..
n B I H = e + f = 64

...(iv)

n C I B = b + e = 80

...(v)

n C I H = d + e = 40

...(vi)

n C I B I H = e = 24

...(vii)

Q d e 40 d 40 24 16
b e 80 b 80 24 56

e f 64 f 64 24 40
Q b c e f 336 c 336 56 24 40 = 216
Again d + e + f + g = 240 g = 240 16 24 40
= 240 80
= 160

Solution contd..
and a + b + d + e = 224
a = 224 56 16 24
= 224 96
= 128

Required number of students not playing any game

= 880 (a + b + c + d + e + f + g)
= 880 (128 + 56 + 216 + 16 + 24 + 40 + 160)
= 880 640
= 240

Thank You
Please forward your query
To: npandey@amity.edu