PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

Module II

THEORY OF METAL
CUTTING
Thermal aspects of Machining,
Tool materials, Tool wear
Cutting fluids and Machinability.

Cutting Temperatures
Of the total energy consumed in machining, nearly all of it is
converted into heat. The heat generated can cause
temperatures to be as high as 6000C at tool chip interface.
Elastic deformation- Energy required for the operation is stored in
the material as strain energy and no heat is generated.
Plastic deformation Most of the energy used is converted as heat.

Cutting temperature has a controlling influence on the rate of

tool wear and friction between tool and chip.

Cutting Temperatures
Cutting temperatures are important because high
temperatures,
1. Reduce tool life.
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the
machine operator.
3. Can cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work piece material.

Effect of cutting temperature

The effect of cutting temperature, particularly when it is
high is mostly detrimental to both the tool and the job.
The major portion of the heat is taken away by the chips.
But it does not matter because chips are thrown out.
So attempts should be made such that the chips take away
more and more amount of heat leaving small amount of
heat to harm the tool and the job.

Effect of cutting temperature on

tool
The possible detrimental effects of the high cutting
temperature on cutting tool (edge) are
Rapid tool wear which reduces tool life
plastic deformation of the cutting edges if the tool
material is not enough hot-hard and hot-strong
thermal flaking and fracturing of the cutting edges
due to thermal shocks.
Built up Edge formation.

Effect of cutting temperature on Job

The possible detrimental effects of the high cutting
temperature on machined job are:
Dimensional inaccuracy of the job due to thermal
distortion and expansion-contraction during and after
machining
surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion,
burning etc.
induction of tensile residual stresses and micro cracks
at the surface / subsurface.

Effect of Cutting Temperature

However, often the high cutting temperature helps in
reducing the magnitude of the cutting forces and cutting
power consumption to some extent by softening or
reducing the shear strength, s of the work material ahead
the cutting edge.
To attain or enhance such benefit the work material
ahead the cutting zone is often additionally heated
externally. This technique is known as Hot Machining
and is beneficially applicable for the work materials
which are very hard and hardenable like high manganese
steel, Hadfield steel, Ni-hard, Nimonic etc.

Factors Affecting Temperature

Sources and Causes of heat generation

in Machining
During machining, heat is generated at the cutting point from
three sources, as indicated in Fig.
Those sources and causes of development of cutting
temperature are:
Primary shear zone (1) where the major part of the energy
is converted into heat.
Secondary deformation zone (2) at the chip tool
interface where further heat is generated due to rubbing
and / or shear.
At the worn out flanks (3) due to rubbing between the tool
and the finished surfaces.

Sources of heat generation in Machining

Thermal Aspects of Machining

The heat generated is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the blank.
The apportionment of sharing the heat depends upon the
configuration, size and thermal conductivity of the tool work
material and the cutting condition.
The following figure visualizes that maximum amount of heat is
carried away by the flowing chip.
From 10 to 20% of the total heat goes into the tool and some heat is
absorbed in the blank.
With the increase in cutting velocity, the chip shares heat
increasingly.

Thermal Aspects of Machining

Temperature distribution in Metal

Cutting
Fig. shows temperature distribution in work piece and chip during
orthogonal cutting (obtained from an infrared photograph, for freecutting mild steel where cutting speed is 0.38m/s, the width of cut is
6.35mm, the normal rake is 300, and work piece temperature is 6110C)

Temperature distribution in Metal

Cutting

Analytical methods to compute Cutting

Temperatures
Cooks Method
0.4U Vt0
T
C K

0.333

Where,
T = Mean temperature rise at tool chip interface, C0
U = Specific Energy in the operation, N-m/mm3
V = Cutting Speed, m/s
t0 = Chip thickness before the cut, m
C = Volumetric Specific heat of work material, J/mm3-C0
K = Thermal diffusivity of the work material, m2/s

Measurement of tool-chip interface

temperature

Tool work Thermocouple Technique

In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive

metals are connected at two junctions.
Whenever one of the junctions is heated, the difference in
temperature at the hot and cold junctions produce a
proportional current which is detected and measured by a
milli-voltmeter.
In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the
two dissimilar metals and the cutting zone functions as the hot
junction.
Then the average cutting temperature is evaluated from the mV
after thorough calibration for establishing the exact relation
between mV and the cutting temperature.

Tool work thermocouple technique

Embedded thermocouple technique

In operations like milling, grinding etc. where the previous methods are
not applicable, embedded thermocouple can serve the purpose. Fig.
shows the principle.
The standard thermocouple monitors the job temperature at a certain
depth, hi from the cutting zone. The temperature recorded in oscilloscope
or strip chart recorder becomes maximum when the thermocouple bead
comes nearest (slightly offset) to the grinding zone.
With the progress of grinding the depth, hi gradually decreases after each
grinding pass and the value of temperature, m also rises as has been
indicated in Fig.
For getting the temperature exactly at the surface i.e., grinding zone, hi
has to be zero, which is not possible. So the m vs hi curve has to be
extrapolated up to hi = 0 to get the actual grinding zone temperature. Log
log plot helps such extrapolation more easily and accurately.

Embedded thermocouple technique

Infra-red photographic technique

This modern and powerful method is based on taking
infra-red photograph of the hot surfaces of the tool, chip,
and/or job and get temperature distribution at those
surfaces.
Proper calibration is to be done before that. This way the
temperature profiles can be recorded as indicated in Fig.
The fringe pattern readily changes with the change in any
machining parameter which affect cutting temperature.

Infra-red photographic technique

Tool wear and failure

The usefulness of tool cutting edge is lost through
Wear
Breakage
Chipping
Deformation
Tool failure implies that the tool has reached a point
beyond which it will not function satisfactorily until it is
re-sharpened.

Three Modes of Tool Failure

Fracture failure
When the Cutting force at tool point becomes excessive, it
leads to failure by brittle fracture.
Temperature failure
Cutting temperature is too high for the tool material, which
makes the tool point to soften, and leads to plastic
deformation along with a loss of sharp edge.
Gradual wear
Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool
shape, reduction in cutting efficiency and finally tool failure.

Preferred Mode of Tool Failure:

Gradual Wear
Fracture and temperature failures are premature failures
Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest
possible use of the tool
Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
Crater wear occurs on top rake face
Flank wear occurs on flank (side of tool)

Figure: Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

locations and types of wear that occur

Crater wear
It consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the
action of the chip sliding on the surface.
Crater wear affects the mechanics of the process increasing
the actual rake angle of the cutting tool and consequently,
making cutting easier.
At the same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and
increases the possibility for tool breakage.
In general, crater wear is of a relatively small concern.

Flank wear
It occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the
machined surface of the work piece and the tool flank.
Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear land and
is measured by the width of this wear land, VB, Flank wear
affects to the great extend the mechanics of cutting.
Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear.
If the amount of flank wear exceeds some critical value i.e.
(VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive cutting force may cause
tool failure.

Corner Wear
It occurs on the tool corner.
Can be considered as a part of the wear land and
respectively flank wear since there is no distinguished
boundary between the corner wear and flank wear land.
We consider corner wear as a separate wear type because
of its importance for the precision of machining.
Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool thus
increasing gradually the dimension of machined surface
and introducing a significant dimensional error in
machining, which can reach values of about 0.03~0.05 mm.

Figure :
(a)Crater wear, and

(b)flank wear on a
cemented carbide tool,
as seen through a
toolmaker's microscope

Tool Wear: Mechanisms

Adhesion wear:
Fragments of the work-piece get welded to the tool surface at high
temperatures; eventually, they break off, tearing small parts of the tool with
them.
Abrasion:
Hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom surface of the chips
rub against the tool surface and break away a fraction of tool with them.
Diffusion wear:
At high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse across to the chip; the rate of
diffusion increases exponentially with temperature; this reduces the fracture
strength of the crystals.

Tool Wear vs. Time

Figure: Tool wear as a function of cutting time

Flank wear (FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear
Crater wear follows a similar growth curve

Factors affecting Tool life

Tool material
Hardness
Work material
Surface roughness of work piece
Profile of cutting tool
Type of machining operation
Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut
Cutting temperature

Tool life Criteria

Actual cutting time to failure.
Length of work cut to failure.
Volume of metal removed to failure.
Cutting speed for a given time to failure.
Number of components produced.

Effect of Cutting Speed

Figure: Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three
cutting speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flank wear

Figure: Natural loglog plot of cutting speed vs tool life

Tool Life
Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting
proceeds, the amount of tool wear increases gradually.
Tool wear must not be allowed to go beyond a certain
limit in order to avoid tool failure.
Tool life is defined as the time interval for which tool
works satisfactorily between two successive grinding or
re-sharpening of the tool.

Taylor Tool Life Equation

This relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor (~1900)

vT
Where,

v = cutting speed;
T = tool life; and

n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut, work

material, tooling material, and the tool life criterion used
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis

Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed

As cutting speed is increased, wear rate increases, so the same wear

criterion is reached in less time, i.e., tool life decreases with cutting speed

Typical Values of n and C in Taylors Tool

Life Equation
Tool material

C (m/min) C (ft/min)

High speed steel:

Non-steel work

0.125

120

350

Steel work

0.125

70

200

Non-steel work

0.25

900

2700

Steel work

0.25

500

1500

0.6

3000

10,000

Cemented carbide

Ceramic
Steel work

Tool life
Volume of metal removed per minute Vm

Vm = ... 3/ in
D = dia of workpiece, mm
t = depth of cut, mm
f = feed, mm/rev
N = RPM

Tool Life
If T be the time for tool failure in mins, The total volume
removed up to Tool Failure

= ....
Cutting Speed,

V = DN/ 000 m/min

Volume of material removed up to tool failure

= 000 V...

Tool Near End of Life

Changes in sound emitted from operation.
Chips become ribbon-like, stringy, and difficult to
dispose off.
Degradation of surface finish.
Increased power required to cut.
Visual inspection of the cutting edge with magnifying
optics can determine if tool should be replaced.

Operators Tool life

Tool life is measured by:
Visual inspection of tool edge
Tool breaks
Fingernail test
Changes in cutting sounds
Chips become ribbony, stringy
Surface finish degrades
Computer interface says
- power consumption up
- cumulative cutting time reaches certain level
- cumulative number of pieces reaches certain value

Wear Control
The rate of tool wear strongly depends on the cutting
temperature, therefore, any measures which could be
applied to reduce the cutting temperature would reduce
the tool wear as well.
The figure shows the process parameters that influence the
rate of tool wear:
Additional measures to reduce the tool wear include the
application of advanced cutting tool materials, such as
coated carbides, ceramics, etc..

Wear Control

Cutting Tool Technology

It has two principal aspects:
1. Tool material
Developing materials that can withstand the forces,
temperatures and wearing in machining process.
2. Tool geometry
Optimizing the geometry of the cutting tool for the
tool material and for a given operation.

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

The cutting tool materials must possess a number of important
properties to avoid excessive wear, fracture failure and high
temperatures in cutting.
The following characteristics are essential for cutting materials to
withstand the heavy conditions of the cutting process and to produce
high quality and economical parts:
Tool failure modes identify the important properties that a tool
material should possess:
Toughness to avoid fracture failure.
Hot hardness ability to retain hardness at high temperatures.
Wear resistance hardness is the most important property to
resist abrasive wear.

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

hardness at elevated temperatures (so-called hot hardness) so
that hardness and strength of the tool edge are maintained in high
cutting temperatures.
Toughness: ability of the material to absorb energy without
failing. Cutting is often accompanied by impact forces especially
if cutting is interrupted, and cutting tool may fail very soon if it is
not strong enough.
wear resistance: although there is a strong correlation between
hot hardness and wear resistance, latter depends on more than
just hot hardness. Other important characteristics include surface
finish on the tool, chemical inertness of the tool material with
respect to the work material, and thermal conductivity of the tool
material, which affects the maximum value of the cutting
temperature at tool-chip interface.

Fig: Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool materials.

Plain carbon steel shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature

increases.
High speed steel is substantially better, while cemented carbides
and ceramics are significantly harder at elevated temperatures.

Carbon Steels

It is the oldest of tool material. It is inexpensive, easily

shaped, sharpened.
The carbon content is 0.6~1.5% with small quantities of
silicon, chromium, manganese, and vanadium to refine
grain size.
This material has low wear resistance and low hot hardness.
Maximum hardness is about HRC 62.
Used for drills taps, broaches, reamers.
Limited to hand tools and low cutting speed operation. (Red
hardness temp.: 200 C)
The use of these materials now is very limited.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

First produced in 1900s. They are highly alloyed with
vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten and chromium
added to increase hot hardness and wear resistance.
Can be hardened to various depths by appropriate heat
treating up to cold hardness in the range of HRC 63-65.
The cobalt component give the material a hot hardness
value much greater than carbon steels.(Red hardness temp.:
6500 C)
The high toughness and good wear resistance make HSS
suitable for all type of cutting tools with complex shapes for
relatively low to medium cutting speeds.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

Highly alloyed tool steel capable of maintaining hardness
at elevated temperatures better than high carbon and low
alloy steels.
One of the most important cutting tool materials
Especially suited to applications involving complicated
tool geometries, such as The most widely used tool
material today for taps, drills, reamers, gear tools, end
cutters, slitting, broaches, etc.
Two basic types
1. Tungstentype, designated T grades
2. Molybdenumtype, designated Mgrades

High Speed Steel Composition

Two basic types of HSS
M-series (6-6-4-2):
Contains 6% molybdenum, 6% tungsten, 4% chromium,
2% vanadium & cobalt
Higher, abrasion resistance
H.S.S. are majorly made of M-series
T-series (18-4-1):
Contains 18 % tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium
& cobalt
undergoes less distortion during heat treating

Cemented Carbides
Introduced in the 1930s. These are the most important
tool materials today because of their high hot hardness
and wear resistance.
There may be other carbides in the mixture, such as
titanium carbide (TiC) and/or tantalum carbide (TaC) in
addition to WC.
The main disadvantage of cemented carbides is their low
toughness.

Cemented Carbides General

Properties
High compressive strength, but low to moderate tensile
strength
High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
Good hot hardness
Good wear resistance
High thermal conductivity
High elastic modulus 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106 lb/in2)
Toughness lower than high speed steel

Cemented Carbides
This hard tool material is produced by a powder
metallurgy technique, sintering grains of tungsten carbide
(WC) in a cobalt (Co) matrix (as the binder, it provides
toughness).
Particles 1-5 m in size are pressed & sintered to desired
shape in a H2 atmosphere furnace at 15500 C.
Amount of cobalt present affects properties of carbide
tools. As cobalt content increases strength, hardness &
wear resistance increases.

Cemented Carbides

Insert Attachment

In spite of more traditional tool materials, cemented carbides are available as

inserts produced by powder metallurgy process.
Inserts are available in various shapes, and are usually mechanically attached
by means of clamps to the tool holder, or brazed to the tool holder.
The clamping is preferred because after an cutting edge gets worn, the insert
is indexed (rotated in the holder) for another cutting edge.
When all cutting edges are worn, the insert is thrown away. The indexable
carbide inserts are never reground.
If the carbide insert is brazed to the tool holder, indexing is not available, and
after reaching the wear criterion, the carbide insert is re-sharpened on a tool
grinder.

Types of Cemented Carbides

Two basic types:

1. Nonsteel cutting grades - only WCCo
2. Steel cutting grades - TiC & TaC added to WCCo

NonSteel Cutting Carbide Grades

Used for nonferrous metals and gray cast iron
Properties determined by grain size and cobalt content
As grain size increases, hardness and hot hardness
decrease, but toughness increases.
As cobalt content increases, toughness improves at the
expense of hardness and wear resistance.

Steel Cutting Carbide Grades

Used for low carbon, stainless, and other alloy steels
For these grades, TiC and/or TaC are substituted for
some of the WC.
This composition increases crater wear resistance for
steel cutting, but adversely affects flank wear resistance
for nonsteel cutting applications.

Coated WC
One advance in cutting tool materials involves the application
of a very thin coating (~ 10 m) to a K-grade substrate, which
is the toughest of all carbide grades.
Coating may consists of one or more
thin layers of wear-resistant
material, such as titanium carbide
(TiC), titanium nitride (TiN),
aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and/or
other, more advanced materials.
Coating
allows
to
increase
significantly the cutting speed for the
same tool life.

Structure of a multi-layer
coated carbide insert

Coated Carbides
Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more thin layers
of wear resistant materials, such as TiC, TiN, and/orAl2O3
Coating is applied by chemical vapor deposition or physical
vapor deposition.
Coating thickness = 2.5 13 m (0.0001 to 0.0005 in)
Applications: cast irons and steels in turning and milling
operations.
Best applied at high speeds where dynamic force and thermal
shock are minimal.

Ceramics
Primarily finegrained Al2O3, pressed and sintered at high
pressures and temperatures into insert form with no binder.
Applications: high speed turning of cast iron and steel
Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g. rough
milling) due to low toughness
There is no occurrence of built-up edge, and coolants
are not required.
Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in grinding.

Ceramics
Two types are available:
White or cold-pressed ceramics, which consists of only
Al2O3 cold pressed into inserts and sintered at high
temperature.
Black or hot-pressed ceramics, commonly known as
cermet (from ceramics & metal). This material consists of
70% Al2O3 and 30% TiC.
Both materials have very high wear resistance but low
toughness, therefore they are suitable only for continuous
operations such as finishing turning of cast iron and steel at
very high speeds.

Cermets
Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium carbonitride (TiCN),
with nickel and/or molybdenum as binders.
Some chemistries are more complex.
Applications:
high speed finishing and semi-finishing of steels, stainless
steels and cast irons.
Higher speeds and lower feeds than steelcutting carbide
grades
Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for grinding.

Diamond
Diamond is the hardest substance ever known of all
materials.
Low friction, high wear resistance.
Ability to maintain sharp cutting edge.

Use is limited because it gets converted into graphite at

high temperature (700 C). Graphite diffuses into iron
and make it unsuitable for machining steels.
It is used as a coating material in its polycrystalline form,
or as a single- crystal diamond tool for special
applications, such as mirror finishing of non-ferrous
materials.

Synthetic Diamonds
Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) - fabricated by
sintering very fine grained diamond crystals under high
temperatures and pressures into desired shape with little or
no binder.
Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on WC-Co insert
Applications: high speed machining of nonferrous metals
and abrasive nonmetals such as fiberglass, graphite, and
wood.
- Not for steel cutting

Cubic Boron Nitride

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (CBN) is hardest
material known. Retain hardness up to 1000C.
By bonding 0.5 mm thick polycrystalline CBN onto a
carbide substrate through sintering under pressure.
CBN is used mainly as coating material because it is very
brittle.
In spite of diamond, CBN is suitable for cutting ferrous
materials.
Applications: machining steel and nickelbased alloys.

Cubic Boron Nitride

SPD and CBN tools are expensive.
Made by bonding (0.5-1.0 mm) Layer of poly crystalline
cubic boron nitride to a carbide substrate by sintering
under Pressure.
While carbide provides shock resistance CBN layer
provides high resistance and cutting edge strength.
Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes without
substrate.

Cutting Fluids

Lubricants purpose is to reduce friction usually oil based

Coolants purpose is to transport heat usually water based
Both lose their effectiveness at higher cutting speeds!

Dry Machining
No cutting fluid is used
Avoids problems of cutting fluid contamination,
disposal, and filtration
Problems with dry machining:
Overheating of the tool
Operating at lower cutting speeds and production rates to
prolong tool life
Absence of chip removal benefits of cutting fluids in
grinding and milling

Cutting Fluids
Essential in metal-cutting operations to reduce heat
and friction
Centuries ago, water used on grindstones
100 years ago, tallow used (did not cool)
Lard oils came later but turned rancid
Early 20th century saw soap added to water
Soluble oils came in 1936
Chemical cutting fluids introduced in 1944
77

Cutting Fluids
Any liquid or gas applied directly to machining
operation to improve cutting performance
Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:
1. Heat generation at shear zone and friction zone
2. Friction at the tool chip and tool work interfaces

Other functions and benefits:

. Wash away chips (e.g., grinding and milling)
. Reduce temperature of work part for easier handling
. Improve dimensional stability of work part

Heat Generated During Machining

Heat finds its way into one of three places
Work piece, tool and chips
Act as disposable
heat sink

Too much, cutting edge will

break down rapidly,
reducing tool life

Too much, work

will expand
79

Heat Dissipation
Ideally most heat taken off in chips
Indicated by change in chip colour as heat causes
chips to oxidize.
Cutting fluids assist taking away heat
Can dissipate at least 50% of heat created during
machining.

80

Characteristics of a Good
Cutting Fluid

Characteristics of a Good
Cutting Fluid
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Good cooling capacity

Good lubricating qualities
Resistance to rancidity
Relatively low viscosity
Stability (long life)
Rust resistance
Nontoxic
Transparent
Non inflammable
82

Economic Advantages to Using

Cutting Fluids
Reduction of tool costs.
Reduce tool wear, tools last longer

Increased speed of production.

Reduce heat and friction so higher cutting speeds

Reduction of labor costs.

Tools last longer and require less regrinding, less
downtime, reducing cost per part

Reduction of power costs.

83

Functions of a Cutting Fluid

Prime functions
Provide cooling
Provide lubrication

Other functions
Prolong cutting-tool life
Provide rust control
Resist rancidity
84

Functions of a Cutting Fluid:

Cooling
Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat generation
and high temperatures are problems.
Most effective on tool materials that are most susceptible to
temperature failures. (e.g., HSS)
Two sources of heat during cutting action
Plastic deformation of metal
Occurs immediately ahead of cutting tool
Accounts for 2/3 to 3/4 of heat

Friction from chip sliding along cutting-tool face.

85

Functions of a Cutting Fluid:

Cooling
Water used as base in coolant type cutting fluids.
Water most effective for reducing heat by will promote
oxidation (rust).
Heat has definite bearing on cutting-tool wear
Small reduction will greatly extend tool life
Decrease the temperature at the chip-tool interface by 50
degrees F, and it will increase tool life by up to 5 times.

86

Functions of a Cutting Fluid:

Lubrication
Usually oil based fluids and are most effective at lower
cutting speeds.
Also reduces temperature in the operation.
Reduces friction between chip and tool face
Shear plane becomes shorter
i.e., the area where plastic deformation occurs is smaller

Extreme-pressure lubricants reduce amount of heat produced

by friction.
EP chemicals of synthetic fluids combine chemically with
sheared metal of chip to form solid compounds (allows chip
to slide)
87

Cutting fluid reduces friction and

produces a shorter shear plane.

88

Cutting-Tool Life
Heat and friction are prime causes of cutting-tool
breakdown
Reduce temperature by as little as 500F, life of cutting
tool increases fivefold
Built-up edge
Pieces of metal weld themselves to tool face
Becomes large and flat along tool face, effective rake
angle of cutting tool decreased
89

Built-up
Edge

Built-up edge keeps breaking off and re-forming and result is

poor surface finish, excessive flank wear, and cratering of
tool face.
90

Cutting Fluid's Effect on Cutting

Tool Action
1.

Lowers heat created by plastic deformation of metal

2.

Friction at chip-tool interface decreased

3.

Less power is required for machining because of

reduced friction

4.

Prevents built-up edge from forming

5.

Surface finish of work greatly improved

91

Rust Control
Water is the best and most economical coolant
Causes parts to rust
Rust is oxidized iron
Chemical cutting fluids contain rust inhibitors

92

Rancidity Control
Rancidity caused by bacteria and other microscopic
organisms, growing and eventually causing bad odours
to form.
Most cutting fluids contain bactericides that control
growth of bacteria and make fluids more resistant to
rancidity.

93

Application of Cutting Fluids

Cutting-tool life and machining operations influenced
by way cutting fluid applied
Copious stream under low pressure so work and tool
well covered
Inside diameter of supply nozzle width of cutting
tool
Applied to where chip being formed

94

Refrigerated Air System

Another way to cool chip-tool interface
Effective, inexpensive and readily available
Used where dry machining is necessary
Uses compressed air that enters vortex generation
chamber
Cooled 1000F below incoming air
Air directed to interface and blow chips away

95

Types of Cutting Fluids

Most commonly used cutting fluids
Either aqueous based solutions or cutting oils

Fall into three categories

Straight Cutting oils
Emulsifiable oils or Water Soluble oils
Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids

96

Straight Cutting Oils

Derived from petroleum, animal, marine or vegetable
substances and may be used straight or in combination.
Their main function is lubrication and rust prevention.
They are chemically stable and lower in cost.
Usually restricted to light duty machining on metals of high
machinability, such as aluminium, magnesium, brass and
leaded steels.
Two classifications
Active
Inactive
97

Active Cutting Oils

Those that will darken copper strip immersed for 3 hours
at temperature of 2120F
Dark or transparent
Better for heavy-duty jobs
Three categories
Sulfurized mineral oils
Sulfochlorinated mineral oils
Sulfochlorinated fatty oil blends

98

Inactive Cutting Oils

Oils will not darken copper strip immersed in them for 3
hours at 2120F
Contained sulfur is natural
Termed inactive because sulfur so firmly attached to oil
very little released

Four general categories

Straight mineral oils, fatty oils, fatty and mineral oil
blends, sulfurized fatty-mineral oil blend

99

Emulsifiable (Water Soluble) Oils

About 90% of all metal cutting and grinding operations
make use of emulsions due to their high sp. Heat, high
thermal conductivity and high heat of vapourisation.
Mineral oils containing soap like material that makes them
soluble in water and causes them to adhere to work piece.
Emulsifiers break oil into minute particles and keep them
separated in water.
Water blend is in the ratio of 1 part oil to 15~20 parts water
(for cutting) and 40 to 60 parts of water (for grinding)

Good cooling and lubricating qualities.

Used at high cutting speeds, low cutting pressures.

100

Chemical Cutting Fluids

Also called synthetic fluids
Introduced about 1945
Stable, preformed emulsions
Contain very little oil and mix easily with water
Extreme-pressure (EP) lubricants added
React with freshly machined metal under heat and pressure
of a cut to form solid lubricant

Reduce heat of friction and heat caused by plastic

deformation of metal
101

Merits & Demerits of Synthetic Fluids

Advantages of Synthetic Fluids

Good rust control
Resistance to rancidity for long periods of time
Reduction of amount of heat generated during cutting due
to Excellent cooling qualities
Longer durability than cutting or soluble oils
Nonflammable nonsmoking & Nontoxic ??????
Easy separation from work and chips
Quick settling of grit and fine chips so they are not recirculated in cooling system
No clogging of machine cooling system due to detergent
action of fluid
Can leave a residue on parts and tools.
103

Caution
Chemical
cutting
fluids
widely
and generally used on ferrous metals.

accepted

They are not recommended for use on alloys of

magnesium, zinc, cadmium, or lead.
They can mar machine's appearance and dissolve
paint on the surface.

104

Machinability
Ease or difficulty with which metal can be machined
with satisfactory finish at low cost.
Measured by length of cutting-tool life in minutes or by
rate of stock removal in relation to cutting speed
employed.

105

Machinability
Machinability is defined in terms of:
1. Surface finish and surface integrity of machined part
2. Tool life
3. Force and power required
4. The level of difficulty in chip control
Good machinability indicates
good surface finish and surface integrity
a long tool life
and low force and power requirements
Note,
continuous chips should be avoided for good machinability.
106

Grain Structure
Machinability of metal affected by its microstructure.
Ductility and shear strength modified greatly by
operations such as annealing, normalizing and stress
relieving.
Certain chemical and physical modifications of steel
improve Machinability.
Addition of sulfur, lead, or sodium sulfate
Cold working, which modifies ductility

107

Machinability Index

Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum

Beryllium

requires machining in a controlled environment

this is due to toxicity of fine particles produced in machining

Cobalt-based alloys

very easy to machine

but softer grades: form BUE poor surface finish
recommend high cutting speeds, high rake and relief angles

abrasive and work hardening

require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials, and low feeds and
speeds

Copper

can be difficult to machine because of BUE formation

109

Machinability:
Machinability of Nonferrous Metals

Magnesium

Titanium and its alloys

have very poor thermal conductivity

high temp. rise and BUE difficult to machine

Tungsten

very easy to machine, good surface finish, prolonged tool life

Caution: high rate of oxidation and fire danger

brittle, strong, and very abrasive

machinability is low

Zirconium

Good machinability
Requires cooling cutting fluid (danger of explosion, fire)
110

Aluminum
Pure aluminum generally more difficult to machine
than aluminum alloys
Produces long stringy chips and harder on cutting tool

Aluminum alloys
Cut at high speeds, yield good surface finish
Hardened and tempered alloys easier to machine
Silicon in alloy makes it difficult to machine
Chips tear from work (poor surface)

111

Copper
Heavy, soft, reddish-colored metal refined from copper
ore (copper sulfide)
High electrical and thermal conductivity
Good corrosion resistance and strength
Easily welded, brazed or soldered
Very ductile

Does not machine well: long chips clog flutes of

cutting tool
Coolant should be used to minimize heat
112

Copper/Beryllium
Heavy, hard, reddish-colored copper metal with Beryllium
added
High electrical and thermal conductivity.
Good corrosion resistance and strength.
Can be welded.
Somewhat ductile.
Withstands high temperature.

Machines well
Highly abrasive to HSS Tooling.
Coolant should be used to lubricate and minimize tool wear.
113

Copper-Based Alloys: Brass

Alloy of copper and zinc with good corrosion
resistance, easily formed, machines, and cast.
Several forms of brass.
Alpha brasses: up to 36% zinc, suitable for cold working.
Alpha 1 beta brasses: Contain 54%-62% copper and used
in hot working.

Small amounts of tin or antimony added to minimize

pitting effect of salt water.
Used for water and gas line fittings, tubings, tanks,
radiator cores, and rivets.
114

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Alloys of copper and tin which contain up to 12% of
principal alloying element
Exception: copper-zinc alloys

Phosphor-bronze
90% copper, 10% tin, and very small amount of phosphorus
High strength, toughness, corrosion resistance
Used for lock washers, cotter pins, springs and clutch discs

115

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Silicon-bronze (copper-silicon alloy)
Contains less than 5% silicon
Strongest of work-hardenable copper alloys
Mechanical properties of machine steel and corrosion
resistance of copper
Used for tanks, pressure vessels, and hydraulic pressure
lines

116

Copper-Based Alloys: Bronze

Aluminum-bronze (copper-aluminum alloy)
Contains between 4% and 11% aluminum
Other elements added
Iron and nickel (both up to 5%) increases strength
Silicon (up to 2%) improves machinability
Manganese promotes soundness in casting

Good corrosion resistance and strength

Used for condenser tubes, pressure vessels, nuts and bolts

117

Effects of
Temperature and Friction
Heat created
Plastic deformation occurring in metal during process of
forming chip
Friction created by chips sliding along cutting-tool face

Cutting temperature varies with each metal and

increases with cutting speed and rate of metal
removal

118

Effects of
Temperature and Friction
Temperature of metal immediately ahead of cutting tool
comes close to melting temperature of metal being cut.
Greatest heat generated when ductile material of high
tensile strength is cut.
Lowest heat generated when soft material of low tensile
strength is cut.
Maximum temperature attained during cutting action.
affects cutting-tool life, quality of surface finish, rate of
production and accuracy of work piece.
119

Friction
Kept low as possible for efficient cutting action
Increasing coefficient of friction
possibility of built-up edge forming

gives

greater

Larger built-up edge, more friction

Results in breakdown of cutting edge and poor surface finish

Can reduce friction at chip-tool interface and help

maintain efficient cutting temperatures if use good
supply of cutting fluid.

120

Factors Affecting Surface Finish

Feed rate
Nose radius of tool
Cutting speed
Rigidity of machining operation
Temperature generated during machining process

121

Surface Finish
Direct relationship between temperature of work piece
and quality of surface finish
High temperature yields rough surface finish
Metal particles tend to adhere to cutting tool and form
built-up edge

Cooling work material reduces temperature of

cutting-tool edge
Result in better surface finish

122