The Game of Algebra

or
The Other Side of
Arithmetic
Lesson 1
by
Herbert I. Gross & Richard A. Medeiros
2007 Herbert I. Gross

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+
Unarithmetic

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

What is Unarithmetic?
When young children are first taught to put
on their shoes, they might refer to taking
off their shoes as unputting on their
shoes. In other words to unput on your
shoes might be a childs way of saying to
take off your shoes. As awkward as this
phrase might seem, it does express the
relationship between putting on and
taking off shoes.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In a similar way to undo multiplication, a

child might have invented the word
unmultiply, which at the very least is
much more suggestive than the word
division.

Key Point
It is in the above context that we may begin
our study of algebra by thinking of it as
being unarithmetic.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Lets keep in mind, whether we

approve or not, that calculators
and computers are now
household items, and students
see nothing wrong in using them.
And, in fact, since the
prerequisite for an algebra course
is a knowledge of arithmetic;
once this knowledge is assumed
there is nothing wrong with
allowing students to use
calculators in an algebra course.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In the language of calculators, we

call it an arithmetic problem, if an
answer to a computation problem can
be obtained by simply pressing keys
in the order in which the operations
are introduced.
For Example
The sequence of steps Start with 6; multiply
by 5; and then add 4 would be called an
arithmetic process or direct computation.
Namely all we would have to do with a
calculator is enter the sequence of
next
key strokes

2007 Herbert I. Gross

30
34
9

The display window of the calculator

displays 34 as the answer.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In terms of a computer analogy,

think of 6 as being the input,
multiply by 5 and then add 4 as
being the program, and 34 as being
the output. Putting this in
computer language, its arithmetic
(or a direct computation) when the
program and input are given, and
the output must be found.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

On the other hand, suppose we

wanted to know the number we
had started with if the answer
was 59 after we first multiplied it
by 5 and then added 4.
In this case, the output (59) is known,
but the input must be determined.
Going back to our calculator, the sequence
of steps for this would have to be

59

But since the calculator doesnt have a ?

key, we cant proceed.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Key Point
In the above context, one of the ways we
define algebra is to say
Algebra is the subject that allows us
to paraphrase questions the calculator
cannot understand into equivalent
questions that the calculator can
understand.
That is: algebra converts an indirect
computation (which we can think of as
unarithmetic) into a direct computation
(which we can think of as arithmetic). next
2007 Herbert I. Gross

Pedagogy Note

Often students depend on a calculator

to do computations, but a calculator,
alone, will not help them solve any
problem that involves an indirect
computation.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

For Example
Consider the fill in the blank question
that is designed to test whether the
students know the number fact 2 + 3 = 5.
Form A
2 + 3 = __
If a student had no idea of what the meaning
of + or = was, but had a calculator, he
still could get the correct answer by
pressing the following keys in order.

5
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

But suppose that, instead of Form A, the

fill in the blank question was worded...
Form B

2 + __ = 5

This presents an obstacle. Namely, the

student can enter 2 and +, but now he is
stymied by the blank. To be able to solve
this problem by using a calculator, the
student would have to be able to
paraphrase Form B into the equivalent form
5 2 = __.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Pedagogy Note
The above discussion is not limited
to mathematics but rather exists
in any course that involves
fill in the blank questions.
How well students will do on a fill-in-theblank type of question will often depend
on how the question is worded.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

For Example
Suppose that students are tested
on whether they know Sacramento
is the capital of California.
The question can be worded as...
____________ is the capital of California.
or
Sacramento is the capital of __________.
Whether you use form (1) or form (2),
the correct answer will be Sacramento
is the capital of California.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

However, the number of students who

get the correct answer could very well
depend on whether form (1) or form (2)
was used.
In particular, in (1) the proper noun is
California, and when thinking of California,
the city name Sacramento may or may not
come to mind.
On the other hand, in form (2) the only
proper noun is Sacramento, and it is quite
likely Sacramento brings California to
mind.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

For Example

The student might reason,

Gee, I didnt know that
Sacramento was the capital of
anything, but knowing that its in
California, I think the correct
answer is probably California.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

How does this apply to the discussion

about arithmetic and algebra?
To give the multiply by 5 and then add
4 a real-life interpretation, consider
Problem
The price of a box of candy in a catalog
reads $5 per box plus $4 shipping and
handling. What is the cost of buying 6
boxes of candy?
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

The thought process for solving this

problem is rather straight-forward;
namely

Since each box costs $5, and you

want to buy 6 boxes
First, multiply $5 by 6, thus obtaining $30
as the cost of the 6 boxes.

$ Then, add an additional $4 for shipping

(to the $30) to obtain the total cost, $34.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

If you didnt know how to perform the

appropriate arithmetic, but you knew how
to use a calculator, you could enter the
following sequence of key strokes

34

And obtain 34 dollars as the answer.

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

The previous sequence of key strokes is

equivalent to what many textbooks refer to
as a function machine; and which is
represented in a form similar to the one
shown below.

Input
number of boxes

Output
5

+4

cost in dollars

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

If we translate the diagram into plain

English, the following sequence of steps
is obtained.
Step 1: Start with the number of boxes
(in the present illustration; its 6).
Step 2: Multiply by 5.
Step 3: Add 4 for shipping.
Step 4: The answer is the cost in dollars
(34).
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Note
In essence, the calculator model,
the function machine, and the plain
English model are equivalent.
However, our own belief is that the
plain English model is the most
user friendly, at least to those
students who may have vestiges of
math anxiety.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

To see the application of an indirect

computation (that is, unarithmetic),
suppose were still buying from the
same candy catalog, but this time
weve decided to spend $59. How
many boxes of candy could we buy
for that amount? Notice that to solve
this problem we have to know more
than just how to read a calculator.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

That is, the sequence of key strokes

would be

59

But, to compute the value of ?

we would have to do an indirect
computation. In other words in this case,
we have defined the input implicitly
(rather than explicitly). That is:
the input is that number which, when we
multiply it by 5 and then add 4, results in 59
being the output.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In terms of the function

machine, the problem looks
like
Input =

Output

?
number of boxes

59
5

+4

cost in dollars

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In terms of our plain English model the

problem would be...
Step 1: Start with the number of boxes (in
the present illustration; its ? ).
Step 2: Multiply by 5.
Step 3: Add 4 for shipping.
Step 4: The answer is the cost in dollars
(59).
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Notice that the answer in Step 4 (59) was

obtained after 4 was added. In other words
to get from Step 3 to Step 4, the fill-in-theblank question would have been
Form A

___ + 4 = 59

Form A tells us that 59 was obtained

after 4 was added to the blank.
Therefore, to determine the number that is
represented by the blank, we have to
unadd 4 to 59 (that is, subtract 4 from 59).
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In other words, Form A ( i.e.___ + 4 = 59)

is equivalent to
Form B

59 4 = ___

The difference between the two forms is

that the calculator can solve Form B, thus
making Form B a direct computation
(arithmetic), but it cannot solve Form A
(which is an indirect computation or
unarithmetic).
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Key Point

It is in this context that we define

algebra as the subject that allows
us to paraphrase questions that
cannot be answered directly
by a calculator into equivalent
questions that can be calculated
directly.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Knowing that 55 (number of dollars)

was the answer after we multiplied by 5,
we then unmultiplied (that is divided) by 5
to determine that we had started with 11.
Program
Start with the number of boxes

Answer is the number of boxes

Multiply by 5.

Unmultiply (Divide) by 5.

Add 4

Unadd (Subtract) 4

Answers is the cost in dollars.

Start with the cost in dollars.

Undoing Program
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In terms of the function machine

model: starting with an input of
11 boxes and obtaining an
output of $59, as shown below, is
considered an arithmetic problem.
Input
11
number of boxes

Output
55
5

11

59
+4

$59
cost in dollars

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

On the other hand, starting with the

cost of $59 as being the input and
reversing the steps using the
undoing process, as shown
below, is considered to be algebra.
Output
Input

Output
Input
11

11

55

number of boxes

+- 44

59
cost in dollars

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Formulas as a Bridge between

Arithmetic and Algebra
A succinct way to emphasize what we just did,
is to talk about formulas.
In essence, a formula is a well-defined rule
that tells how to deduce the value of an
unknown quantity, by taking advantage of
knowing one (or more) related quantities.
An elementary example is the rule that tells us
the relationship between feet and inches.
Since there are 12 inches in a foot: to convert
feet to inches, simply multiply the number of
next
feet by 12.

2007 Herbert I. Gross

To write the relationship in the form of

a formula: let F denote the number of feet
and I the number of inches.
The formula would become

I = 12 F
If, for example, F equals 5, the formula
would become

I = 12 5
and would thus be a direct computation
(arithmetic).
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

On the other hand, if I equals 60, the

formula would become

60 = 12 F
In which case there would be an indirect
computation (algebra) which by
unmultiplying becomes the direct
computation.

60 12 = F
However, keep in mind that the formula, in
itself, is neither arithmetic nor algebra.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Appendix
The Corn Bread Model
Sometimes a picture is worth a thousand words

This is especially true in problems that

involve constant rates. For example,
consider the following question
In a certain class, the ratio of boys
to girls is 2:3. If there are 30 students in
the class, how many of them are boys?
2007 Herbert I. Gross

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Arithmetic Solution
By a ratio of 2:3 (read as 2 to 3) we mean
that for every 2 boys in the class, there are
3 girls. Namely, a group consists of
2 boys and 3 girls, so there are
5 students in each group.
(In the language of common fractions,
this tells us 2/5 of the students are boys.)
And since there are 30 students in the
class, and since 2/5 of 30 is 12,
there are 12 boys in the class.
2007 Herbert I. Gross

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However, the above solution can be

threatening to students who come to
algebra still uncomfortable with fractions.
A simple way to make fractions easier
once and for all, is to make them visual.
Namely, draw a rectangle (which we like to
personify by referring to it as a corn bread).
This corn bread will represent the
total number of students.
Corn Bread
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

The fact that the ratio of boys to girls is

2:3 means that we can divide the rectangle
(corn bread) into 5 pieces of equal size.
We then let 2 of the pieces (designated by
the letter B) represent the number of boys,
and 3 of the pieces (designated by the letter
G) represent the number of girls.
B

BCornG
BreadG

G
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Since the corn bread represents the total

number of students, and since there are 5
equally sized pieces and 30 students;
each of the 5 pieces represents 30 5 or
6 students. That is
In summary
B
6 12 B
6
Boys

G
6

18
G
6

G
6

Girls
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The corn bread model

Note
doesnt depend on how
many students there are. If, for example,
there are 1,000 students, still with a boy-togirl ratio of 2:3, the corn bread would still be
divided into 5 equally sized pieces.
But now, each of the 5 pieces represents
1,000 5; that is, 200 students.
200
B 400200
B

200
G

200
600
G

200
G

Girls
Boys
Thus, there would be 400 boys and 600 girls.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

More generally: if we denote the total

number of students by T, then the number
of students in each of the 5 pieces is T 5.
The corn bread model presents a nice
introduction to algebraic equations.
For example, we can let x represent the
number of students in each of the 5 pieces.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

In that event, the picture translates into

2x = the number
of boys.
B
x

B
x

3x = the number
of girls.
G
x

G
x

G
x

The total number of students would be

2x

3x
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Suppose now that the total number of

students is 150, and the ratio of boys to
girls is still 2 to 3. It follows that
2x + 3x = 150.
By dividing each side of the equation by 5
we obtain
5 x = 150
= 30
5
5
2 x = the number
of boys.
2007 Herbert I. Gross

2 (30) = 60

3 x = the number
of girls.
3 (30) = 90

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A Note on Bridging the Gap

In between the abstractness of fractions
and the concreteness of the corn bread,
one can always interject trial and error.
One systematic approach to trial and
error is known as an input/output table.
With respect to our original problem,
namely...
In a certain class, the ratio of boys to
girls is 2:3. If there are 30 students in the
class, how many of them are boys?
2007 Herbert I. Gross

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We make a table in which we start with

2 boys and 3 girls and keep adding rows
that consist of 2 more boys and 3 more
girls until we get to the row in which the
total number of students is 30.
Row

Number of Boys

Number of Girls

Number of Students

1
2
3
4
5
6

2
4
6
8
10
12

3
6
9
12
15
18

5
10
15
20
25
30

2007 Herbert I. Gross

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Note
The chart offers the additional advantage
of highlighting patterns.
For example, it makes it easy to see that
each time the number of boys increases
by 2, the number of girls increases by 3,
and that the total number of students
increases by 5. And this, in turn, is a
segue for helping students see a wholenumber version of what 2/5 means.
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Note on the Chart

For example, suppose there had been 60 boys

in the class, and we wanted to know how many
students were in the class altogether.
Since each additional row adds 2 more boys
(and 3 more girls), the entry for 60 boys would
occur in the 30th row (60 2). It would be
cumbersome to extend such a chart to 30 rows.
However, once we realize that every new row
shows 5 more students, we know that the entry
in the 30th row has to be 60 boys (30 2),
90 girls (30 3) and a total of 30 5 (or 150)
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students.

2007 Herbert I. Gross

That is
Row

Number of Boys

Number of Girls

Number of Students

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
--30

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
--3060 2

3
6
9
12
15
18
21
--3090
3

5
10
15
20
25
30
35
--30
150
5

2007 Herbert I. Gross

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Applying the Corn Bread to

Lesson 1
While the Corn bread model might seem
rather simplistic, experience assures us
that the corn bread model can be used to
good advantage throughout all school
levels.

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2007 Herbert I. Gross

For example, with respect to our earlier

problem of buying 6 boxes of candy from a
catalog for $5 each, with $4 added to the
order to cover shipping; we can use the
corn bread model as representing the total
cost.
The corn bread would be cut into 7 pieces.
Namely 6 equal-sized pieces for the 6 boxes
of candy costing $5 each; and then 1 smaller
piece for the $4 shipping.

$5$10
$$5
15
$20
Corn
$$5
25
$30
$34
$5
Bread
$5 $5 $4
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2007 Herbert I. Gross

Closing Note
We have now begun our journey
from arithmetic to algebra,
and we hope you are
enjoying the trip.

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2007 Herbert I. Gross