RAY

DIAGRAM

RAY DIAGRAM

Ray-diagram analyses can be used to study the effect of

room shape on the distribution of sound and to identify
surfaces which may produce echoes.
A ray diagram is an acoustical analogy to the specular
reflection of light where the angle of incidence angleiof an
impinging sound wave equals the angle of reflection
angler, with angles measured from the perpendicular to
the surface. That is, sound waves are reflected from
surfaces in the same way a billiard ball, without spin,
rebounds from a cushion.
Because of this, small mirrors or silvered paper can be used
with architectural drawings (or small-scale models) in a
darkened room to reflect light from a point source. The
patterns of reflected light demonstrate, during the design
process, the effect of room shape on the distribution of
sound.

Billiard Table; Mirror

Some
limitations
ray-diagram
studies
are
1. Sound
reflects in theof
manner
indicated by
ray
as
follows:
diagrams
only when surface dimensions are large
relative to the wavelength X of sound being evaluated
(>4X).
2. Normally, the source of speech or music will not
radiate from a fixed position. Optimum room shape
therefore depends on a careful balance of the best sound
distribution from several source positions to the listening
area.
3. A detailed evaluation of diffusion of sound by room
surfaces is not possible with ray diagrams. Therefore,
scale models which allow frequency-scaled acoustical
studies are often used in design, particularly in rooms
where music perception is important (cf., V. 0. Knudsen,
Model Testing of Auditoriums, Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, February 1970, pp. 401-407).

In spite of these limitations, ray diagrams can be an

important design tool in establishing optimum room shape.
The table below is a design guide that can be used with
ray-diagram analyses to evaluate general listening
conditions. The difference in length between the reflected
sound path and the direct sound path at any listening
position is directly related to the time difference which the
ear detects, For example, if a reflected sound wave is heard
1 / 17 s or later after it was first heard as a direct sound,
the reflected sound wave can be perceived as a discrete
echo. A familiar example of this situation would be the
echoes from cliffs in mountain regions, where reflected
sounds are heard as distinct repetitions of the direct (or
original) sound. The sound path difference in feet from a
sound delayed by 1/17 s (about 0.06 s) can be found as
follows:
Distance = velocity X time = 1130 X 0.06 = 68ft

Sound Path
Difference (ft)

Time Delay Gap

(ms)

Listening Conditions

< 23

< 20

23 to 34

20 to 30

Excellent for speech and

music

34 to 50

30 to 45

50 to 68

45 to 60

> 68

> 60

Good for speech, fair for

music
Marginal (blurred)
Unsatisfactory
Poor (echo if strong
enough)

References
L. L. Beranek and T. J. Schultz, Some Recent Experiences in the Design and Testing of
Concert Halls with Suspended Panel Arrays, Acustica, vol. 15, 1965.
V. O. Knudsen, Architectural Acoustics, Scientific American, November 1963,
R. L. McKay, Notes on Architectural Acoustics, Stipes Publishing, Champaign, III., 1964.

RAY-DIAGRAM GRAPHICS
An inexpensive protractor to measure angles, a pencil,
scale, and paper are all the equipment required for raydiagram calculations. Shown below is an auditorium
section with sound path differences calculated to front and
middle- rear audience locations from a typical source
location.
Path difference = reflected path - direct path

Example RayDiagram
Measurements
(Distances are shown
in parentheses on
the drawing)
Front location no. 1:
Path difference = (11
+ 18) - (12) = 17 ft
Excellent for speech
and music because
path difference is less
than 23 ft.
Middle location no. 2:
Path difference = (16
+ 26) - (33) = 9 ft
Excellent for speech
and music because
path difference is less
than 23 ft.

RAY
DIAGRAM

RAY DIAGRAM
Ray-diagram analyses can be used to study the effect of
room shape on the distribution of sound and to identify
surfaces which may produce echoes.
A ray diagram is an acoustical analogy to the specular
reflection of light where the angle of incidence angleiof an
impinging sound wave equals the angle of reflection
angler, with angles measured from the perpendicular to
the surface. That is, sound waves are reflected from
surfaces in the same way a billiard ball, without spin,
rebounds from a cushion.
Because of this, small mirrors or silvered paper can be
used with architectural drawings (or small-scale models) in
a darkened room to reflect light from a point source. The
patterns of reflected light demonstrate, during the design
process, the effect of room shape on the distribution of
sound.

RAY DIAGRAM
-is a procedure for analyzing affected sound distribution
throughout a hall, hearing the first reflection only.

voice

y
Sound ra

Sets on steep slope provide good sight line and minimum

sound attenuation

FLAT CEILING
Useful Reflector

In figure (a.)
The stage height and seating slope are arranged to provide
good sight line, and the ceiling height is unstablished by
reverberation requirements, aesthetics, cost, etc. it can be
seen that less than half of the ceiling is providing useful
reflection by dividing the ceiling into two panel.

Use

f ul R
efle
ctor

TWO PANEL CEILING INCREASES USEFUL REFLECTING

AREA
Figure(b.)
People in the rear of the room percieve direct source
plus two images sources, and the all reflecting area is
increased by 50%.

MULTIFACETED CEILING INCOTPORATES LIGHTS & LOUD

SPEAKER
Figure (c.)
The shape has been further refined to include a lighting slot
and loudspeaker grille

Flutter is perceived as a buzzing or clicking sound and it is

comprised of repeated echoes traversing back and forth
between two non-absorbing parallel (flat or concave)
surfaces. Flutters often occur between shallow domes and
hard , flat doors. The remedy for a flutter is either to
change the shape of the reflectors, their parallel
relationships, or add absorption. The solution chosen will
depend on reverberation requirements, cost, or aesthetics.

FOCUSING
Concave domes, vaults, or walls will focus reflected
sound into certain areas of rooms. This has several
disadvantages. For example, it will deprive some
listeners of useful sound reflection and cause hot
spots at other audience positions.

DIFFUSION

Specular angle - angle of incidence is equal

to the angle of reflection

This is the converse of focusing and occurs primarily when

sound is reflected from convex surfaces.
In a diffused sound field the sound level remains relatively
constant throughout the space and as such is extremely
desirable for musical performances.

CREEP
This describes the reflection of sound along a curved
surface from a source near the surface. Although the
sound can be heard at points along the surface, it is
inaudible away from the surface.

STANDING WAVES
Standing waves and flutters are very similar in
principle and cause, but are heard quite indifferently.
When an impulse (such as a hand) is the energy
source, a flutter will occur but only when the parallel
walls are spaced apart at so

LAWS OF REFLECTION

SHAPE OF level
PLANE

convex

concave

SECONDAR reflected
Y SOUND
RAY

dispersed

focused

DIVERGEN
CE

unchanged greater

smaller

Gh

CONCAVE CEILING IS ACOUSTICALLY BAD

Gh

BROKEN CEILING SURFACE PRODUCE EVEN

SOUND DISTRIBUTION

Gh

ARRANGEMENT OF SEATING WHICH ENSURES

UNOBSTRUCTED PATHS FOR DIRECT SOUND. STEP
HEIGHT D 8 cm CONSTANT

Gh

PLAN AND SECTION OF CONCERT HALL (SALLE

PLAYEL, PARIS, 1927)

DIRECTIVITY CONTOURS FOR

SPEECH
The polar coordinate graph
below plots contours of sound
levels for speech. The shapes
of the contours show the
directional characteristics of
speech at low frequencies
(<= 500 Hz to represent
vowels, which contribute to
the tone of an individuals
speech)
and
at
high
frequencies (=> 4000 Hz to
re present consonants, which
strongly
influence
intelligibility of sibilants). 00
is the direction the speaker is
facing, 180 the direction
behind the speaker.

Speech Contours (500 and

4000 Hz); Auditorium Plan
with Speech Contour Overlay

t
Sound levels at low frequencies are diminished very
little at the sides (90 orientation) and moderately at
the rear (8 dB lower). However, sound levels at high
frequencies are diminished by about 6 dB at the
sides and 20 dB (about one- fourth as loud) at the
rear. When speakers turn their backs to the
audience, consonants can become completely
inaudible!

AUDIENCE SEATING
Sound level outdoors falls off with
distance (as sound spreads outward it
loses energy according to the inversesquare law) and from audience
attenuation (as sound grazes the
seated audience it is scattered and
absorbed). When steeply sloped seating
is used, the sound level outdoors falls
off primarily with distance. An overhead
sound-reflecting panel or ceiling, as
shown by the illustration below, can
provide reflected sound to rein: force
the direct sound. For example, installing
a hard, sound-reflecting enclosure
outdoors near the sound source can
greatly improve listening conditions by
reflecting sound energy toward the
audience and by shielding the audience
from noise sources located behind the