Lecture 01:

Basic concepts in International

Relations

Who conducts International

Relations?
Almost 200 states
Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), such as
the UN, NATO, the European Union and the
Arab League
Multinational corporations (MNCs) also known
as transnational companies
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
Although not regarded as legitimate actors in the
system, terrorist groups can also play a role

States
States are important
because they have a
monopoly on military power
They also make all the
relevant decisions about
how relations with other
states are conducted

Intergovernmental
organisations (IGOs)
Intergovernmental
organisations (IGOs) are
formal associations of states
created by treaty or charter
IGOs exist for various
purposes, including
cooperation and security,
regulation, and economic,
educational and cultural aims
The most important IGO is
the United Nations

Multinational corporations
(MNCs)
Multinational corporations
are companies that have
operations in more than
one country
MNCs are important
because of their size and
their ability to influence
government policies, even
in more powerful states

Non-governmental
organisations (NGOs)
NGOs are legal entities
that are independent of
governments and are not
businesses
Most NGOs are operational
(they deliver services such
as welfare or relief) or
campaigning
NGOs can influence
government policies,
particularly in areas such
as the environment and
human rights

Terrorist groups
Terrorist groups are
not regarded as
legitimate actors in
IR, as they operate
outside the law
However, groups
such as Al Qaeda
have proved able to
influence government
policies

States and non-state actors

Realism, one of the main approaches in
International Relations, is concerned
entirely with relations between states
Pluralism, an alternative approach, claims
that all types of actors not just states
have a potential impact

Three concepts of the state

There is some confusion between three
concepts of the state:
The state as a legal person, with sovereignty
over a territory
The state as a country
The state as a government
We are concerned only with the first of these
concepts

The diversity of states

It is a convenient fiction to treat states as
similar entities
In reality, there are vast differences
between states
The 193 states that are members of the
United Nations include the United States of
America, the Peoples Republic of China
and Russia, but also 40 states with fewer
than 1,000,000 inhabitants

Microstates
Nauru, the least
populous member of
the UN, has fewer
than 10,000 people
It has no armed
forces and is
dependent on
economic assistance
from other states

States with limited recognition

Several self-declared
states have failed to
achieve international
recognition
These are mostly
breakaway states or
territories involved in
ethnic disputes, such
as the Turkish Republic
of Northern Cyprus

States with limited recognition (2)

Palestine has been
recognised by 131
members of the UN,
but has no real power
Palestine is not
recognised by Israel,
which exercises real
power in the territory
claimed by Palestine

States and sovereignty

Simplest definition: the capacity of the
state to control and determine events
within its own territory
This means that no other entity has
authority over a sovereign state
Sovereignty is a legal concept a state still
enjoys legal sovereignty even if it cannot
exercise actual authority

Westphalian sovereignty
Sovereignty as a
modern concept has its
roots in the Treaty of
Westphalia (1648)
This confirmed that
states had no right to
interfere in the internal
affairs of other states

Sovereignty and IR
In all IR debates, Westphalian sovereignty is
regarded as the basis of the international
system of states
The principle of Westphalian sovereignty is still
upheld: Article 2 of the United Nations Charter
recognises the sovereign equality of all
member states
This article makes it illegal for one state to
interfere in the internal affairs of another

Limits to sovereignty
Despite the ongoing emphasis on
sovereignty, there are several factors
that limit a states sovereignty
These can be voluntary limits from
above or below
In many IR debates, there are claims
that globalisation is eroding state
sovereignty

Limits from above

Membership of supranational bodies (IGOs
such as the United Nations, the European
Union or NATO)
Obligations under the terms of international
treaties and agreements (nuclear
weapons, human rights, trade, etc.)

Limits from below

In many countries, some
regions enjoy a large
measure of autonomy, with
many decisions made at the
local rather than national
level
In the UK, many decisions
are made by regional
assemblies in Scotland,
Northern Ireland and Wales,
rather than the government in
London

Failed states
There is no single definition, but a failed state will
show at least some of the following characteristics:
A loss of control of its territory, or of the monopoly
on the legitimate use of physical force therein
The erosion of legitimate authority to make
collective decisions
An inability to provide public services
An inability to interact with other states as a full
member of the international community
Source: the Fund for Peace

Failed states and sovereignty

Failed states have not lost legal
sovereignty, but do not have the actual
ability to exercise it
Somalia, where the country has
fragmented, is the most dramatic
example of a failed state
Many other states exert limited actual
authority over parts of their territory

The Failed States Index, 2011

(the countries in red have alert status)

Polarity
A key concept in International
Relations, polarity is the various ways in
which power is distributed throughout
the world or regions
There are several variants of polarity:
Unipolarity
Bipolarity
Multipolarity
Nonpolarity

Unipolarity
A system in which one state possesses
the most political influence
Best example: the United States after
the end of the Cold War the end of the
Soviet Union left the USA as the worlds
only superpower

Bipolarity
A system in which two states possess
the most political influence
Best example: the USA and the USSR
during the Cold War

Multipolarity
A system in which several states possess a
considerable degree of political influence
Best recent example: the world before World
War I

Nonpolarity
A system in which no state possesses
the most political influence
Some thinkers believe the world is
heading towards this