From DNA to Proteins

The Central Dogma: Information flow from

Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) to Amino Acids
(Protein)

In Eukaryotes, gene expression begins in the nucleus with the process

of Transcription [DNA
RNA] and concludes in the cytoplasm where
Translation [RNA
Protein] takes place.

DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides....

A nucleotide consists of: 1) a
phosphate group, 2) a pentose (sugar
= Ribose or Deoxyribose), and 3) a
nitrogen rich base (G,C, A, T or U)

Nucleic acids were discovered in 1869 by

Swiss physiological chemist, Friedrich
Miescher. However, it was another 50
years before a Russian biochemist,
Phoebus Levene discovered the order of
the three major components of a single
nucleotide (phosphate-sugar-base) and the
way in which RNA and DNA molecules are
put together (Levene, 1919).

Pray,L.(2008)DiscoveryofDNAstructureandfunction:Watsonand
Crick.NatureEducation1(1):100

Chargaffs Rule

The Austrian biochemist, Erwin Chargaff ,

expanded upon Levenes work and
reached two major conclusions 1) The
nucleotide composition of DNA varies
among species; 2) the amount of adenine
(A) equals that of thymine (T), and the
amount of guanine (G) equals that of
cytosine (C). In other words, the total
amount of purines (A + G) and the total
amount of pyrimidines (C + T) are usually
nearly equal. This second major conclusion
is now known as "Chargaff's rule."

Discovery of the "Double Helix"

Rosalind
Franklin
Chargaff's realization that A = T and
C = G, combined with some crucially
important X-ray crystallography work by
English researchers Rosalind Franklin
and Maurice Wilkins, contributed to
Watson and Crick's derivation of the
three-dimensional, double-helical model
for the structure of DNA.
Pray,L.(2008)DiscoveryofDNAstructureandfunction:
WatsonandCrick.NatureEducation1(1):100

James Watson & Francis

Crick shared the Nobel Prize with
Maurice Wilkins in 1952

http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-function-watson-397

The double stranded structure of DNA held together by

complimentary base pairs provides an efficient mechanism for
the faithful replication of DNA and the accurate transmission of
genetic information from DNA to RNA to Proteins.

Base pairing in DNA.

Two hydrogen bonds connect T to A;
three hydrogen bonds connect G to
C. The sugar-phosphate backbones
(grey) run anti-parallel to each other,
so that the 3 and 5 ends of the two
strands are aligned.
2013 Nature Education All rights

DNA PARADE
2,600 people
form chain to
celebrate the
anniversary of
the discovery of
the Double
Helix.

Unlike DNA,
RNA is singlestranded.
RNA molecules
perform multiple
functions in the cell
ranging from encoding
genetic instructions
and regulating
translation, to carrying
chemical energy in
the form of ATP.

The genetic code is nearly universal, shared by

the simplest bacteria to the most complex animals
Fig. 17-6

Genes can be
transcribed
and translated
after being
transplanted
from one
species to
another
(a) Tobacco plant expressing
a firefly gene

Copyright2008PearsonEducationInc.,publishingasPearsonBenjaminCummings

(b) Pig expressing a

jellyfish gene

Gene Expression begins with Transcription, the process

of generating an RNA transcript from a DNA gene.

OnlyoneoftheDNAstrands(theanticodonstrand)serves
asatemplateforRNAsynthesis.

Since the
RNA
Transcript is
formed 5
to 3 which
side of this
DNA
molecule
will be used
as a

5 end

3 end

Starting with
the Start
codon (AUC),
every three
mRNA bases
codes for a
specific amino
acid.

In Eukaryotes, the RNA transcript is modified and edited to

produce the final mature RNA transcript.

In Eukaryotes, the mature transcript

exits the nucleus through a nuclear pore and
enters the cytoplasm where it is Translated
into protein.

The Genetic Code is Redundant and Unambiguous

Translation (Protein Synthesis) occurs in the cytoplasm through the

action of ribosomes (Molecular Machines made of RNA & protein)

Translation involves
three types of RNA:
1)mRNA
2)tRNA
3)rRNA

Translation Initiation
(1)The small subunit binds an
mRNA and an initiator tRNA
bearing methionine and the
anticodon UAC base pairs with
the START codon AUG.

(2) The large sub-unit assembles

positioning the initiator tRNA in the P site.

Peptide Elongation

A peptide bond is formed between the

last amino acid of the peptide chain
and the amino acid in the A site. The
peptide is transferred to the A site
tRNA. and the uncharged tRNA exits
the P site.

As the ribosome advances,

the peptide bearing tRNA is
shifted to the P site allowing
the next charged tRNA to
enter the A site

Translation terminates when an mRNA

STOP codon is reached and base pairs
with the complimentary tRNA in the A site.

Many Ribosomes can assemble on a single mRNA

transcript forming a polysome.

Gene expression can be regulated in the nucleus by

transcriptional control and post-transcriptional processing)

and/or in the
cytoplasm via
translational control
and posttranslational protein
modifications.