Botany

BOTANY
Name of Presenter
Position
Department/College
(click View>>Master>>Slide Master to edit)
MISSION
The
University
of
Batangas
provides quality education by
promoting
personal
and
professional growth and enabling
the person to participate in a global,
technology, and research driven
environment
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,
R.N., M.A.N
UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA CITY
VISION
We envision the University of
Batangas to be a center of excellence
committed to serve the broader
community through quality education

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PHILOSOPHY
The University of Batangas , a stock,
non -sectarian, private educational
institution believes in the pursuit of
knowledge,
values
and
skills
necessary for the preservation and
improvement of the Philippine
society.
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It has faith in the dignity of human

person, in demographic process, in
reward for individual excellence, and in
freedom of a person to worship God
according to his conscience.

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Thus, the institution believes that the

development of the individual as a
person and worker is an effective
means in building a better family,
community, and nation, and a better
world.

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Objectives
The University of Batangas aims to:
Pursue academic excellence through a
continuing search for and application of
truth, knowledge and wisdom via
traditional and alternative modes of
instructional delivery

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Promote moral and spiritual development

through an integrated education process
that will enhance human character and
dignity

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Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

conscience through an educational
content relevant to national development
needs, conditions and aspirations;

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Strengthen involvement in community

services through varied economic projects
and extensive research

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Attain institutional self-reliance through

responsive programs for staff, facilitates
and systems development; and

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Ensure financial viability and profitability

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Basic Botany

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Botany: the Study of Plants

What is a plant?
Lives on land
Doesnt move under its own power
Produces food and energy from sunlight (photosynthesis)
multicellular
embryo develops inside the mother's body
Excludes algae (live in water) and fungi (no photosynthesis)

and bacteria (unicellular)
All of these have been traditionally part of botany, in which plants

were defined as anything that wasnt an animal.
However, some plants dont photosynthesize (parasites) or

live in the water. They are considered plants because they
are descended from legitimate photosynthesizing, landdwelling plants.

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Plant Cells
All living things are made of cells.
Plant cells are very similar to animal cells:
plants and animals are both eukaryotes
(as opposed to prokaryotes, which are
more primitive single celled things like
bacteria and archaea)
eukaryote means the cell's DNA is
enclosed in a nucleus
all cells are surrounded by a cell

membrane, which keeps the inside
separated from the outside.
The cytoplasm is everything between the
cell membrane and the nucleus. It
contains lots of useful organelles which do
all the metabolic activity and chemical
changes needed to keep the cell alive.

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Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

Plant cells are different from animal cells in several ways:
Rigid cell wall (cell wall is OUTSIDE the cell membrane. It is the box that
contains the cell.)
Central vacuole that stores water
Chloroplasts that perform photosynthesis
Chloroplasts were originally free-living photosynthetic bacteria that got

swallowed by a primitive eukaryotic cell and developed a mutually
beneficial symbiotic relationship inside the cell (endosymbiont theory)

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Cell Walls and Vacuoles

All cells have to deal with osmotic pressure.
There is a higher concentration of particles inside the cell than outside: in other
words, there is less water in the cell than outside
So, water is trying to diffuse into the cell, going down its concentration gradient
This would cause an unprotected cell to swell up and burst.
The cell wall acts as a rigid box to prevent the cell from bursting.
On the other hand, if the plant isnt getting enough water (or if the plant is put in
a high salt solution), the water supply in the central vacuole moves into the
cytoplasm.
This causes the cell to shrink away from the cell wall.
The plant wilts

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Cell Walls
The cell wall is mostly made of
cellulose.
Cellulose is a molecule made of
many glucose sugar molecules
linked in long chains
Starch is also made of many
glucose units, but the linkages
between the glucoses is different
in cellulose and starch. This
gives them different chemical
properties.

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Notably, almost all organisms can easily digest starch, but very few can
digest cellulose.
Mostly just some types of bacteria and protists
Cellulose is probably the most common organic compound on Earth.
In cells needed for support or water conduction, the cell wall is

thickened and strengthened by lignin, a complex organic compound
that is even harder to digest than cellulose.

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Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis uses energy from

light to convert carbon dioxide
(CO2) into sugar.
Occurs in the chloroplasts, which
were once free-living bacteria that
got swallowed up by
endosymbiosis.
In other parts of the plant,
chloroplasts get used for
storage of food or other
pigments (like in flowers)

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Two parts to photosynthesis: light reactions (occur only

in the light) and the Calvin cycle (occurs in both light and
dark).
Light reactions: Light energy is captured by
chlorophyll and used to extract electrons from water,
which converts it to oxygen.
Calvin cycle: The high energy electrons are used to
convert carbon dioxide into sugar. This is called
carbon fixation.

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Plant Tissues
A tissue is a group of cells
that performs a specific
function.
Four basic types in
plants: meristems, dermal
tissue, vascular tissue,
and ground tissue.

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Meristems are special regions where cell division

occurs. Meristems produce all of the new cells; once
a cell leaves the meristem, it can enlarge but not
divide.
Apical meristem: at the tip of the plant shoots and
at the tip of the roots. This is where growth
occurs, producing new leaves, branches, flowers,
etc.
Lateral meristem: in the stems of woody plants:
they produce lateral growth. Also called cambium
layers.
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Vascular Tissue
Two basic types: xylem and phloem

Xylem conducts water and mineral nutrients up from the roots.
Xylem cells are dead and hollowed out.
Wood is made of xylem, but even non-woody plants have xylem.
Water is pulled up by transpiration: water molecules evaporating from the leaves pull
other water molecules up the tubes, because water molecules stick together.
Phloem cells carry organic matter (mostly sugar) from the leaves to other parts of
the plant.
Unlike xylem, phloem cells are alive.
The cells are connected by many pores, so material flows easily between the cells.
Flow of material in both directions

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More Tissues
Dermal tissue is the outer covering (the skin) of the
plant.
Secretes waxes that make up the waterproof cuticle.
Stomata: openings in the leaves to let gases in ant out.
Stomata open and close under different conditions.
Hairs on leaves, shoots, and roots
Ground tissue is all the rest of the cells in the plant.

Photosynthesis, food storage, support, fibers.

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Meristems
Meristematic tissues are clumps of small
cells with dense cytoplasm and
proportionately large nuclei.
Elongation of roots and shoots takes place by
repeated cell divisions and subsequent
elongation by the apical meristem.
In some species, lateral meristems produce an
increase in girth.
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Meristems
Apical meristems
located at tip of stems and roots
Plant tissues that result from primary growth are
called primary tissues.
make up primary plant body
root apical meristem protected by root cap

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Apical Meristems
Give rise to three types of primary meristems

protoderm - forms epidermis
procambium - forms primary vascular tissue
ground meristem - differentiates into ground
tissue
intercalary meristems may arise in stem internodes

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Lateral Meristems
Most trees, shrubs, and some herbs have

active lateral meristems.
increases girth in nonwoody plants - secondary
growth
Woody stems
cork cambium
produces cork cells
vascular cambium
produces secondary vascular tissue
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Organization of the Plant Body
Vascular plant consists of:
root system - anchors plant and penetrates soil to

absorb water and ions
shoot system
stems framework for positioning leaves
leaves - principle sites of photosynthesis
vegetative shoot - internode, node leaf and axillary buds

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The Plant Body

The basic parts: roots, shoots,
leaves, flowers, fruits.
Most photosynthesis occurs in
the leaves. Photosynthesis
produces sugar (sucrose),
which is used to feed the rest
of the plant.
Water and mineral nutrients
come from the soil: they are
absorbed into the plant by the
roots.

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Stems hold the leaves and flowers up in the air: off

the ground, above things that might block the sun,
away from predators and decay organisms. Stems
contain the plumbing that carries nutrients to different
parts of the plant.
Flowers are the reproductive structures, which
produce the plant equivalents of sperm and egg.
Fruits hold the seeds (products of reproduction) and
provide nutrients and a means of dispersing the
seeds to new locations.

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Leaves
Leaves are the main site of
photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis mostly
occurs in the layer of cells
just below the epidermis.
(palisade layer)
The sugars are then
transported to other parts of
the plant through the
vascular system.

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The spongy tissue below the palisade layer carries

the sugar (dissolved in water) to the veins of the leaf,
which are part of the vascular system.
Monocot leaves have parallel leaf veins, while dicot
leaves have a net-like vein pattern.
Leaves are coated with a waxy layer called the cuticle.
The leaf epidermis cells secrete the cuticle, which helps
prevent the leaf from drying out.

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Stomata in the Leaves

Photosynthesis needs CO2 from the
atmosphere, which comes in through
the stomata. Transpiration needs
water vapor to evaporate out through
the stomata
Stomata are located on the
underside of the leaves.
Stomata can open and close: need
them open to admit carbon dioxide,
but not so much as to dry out the
plant.
C4 and CAM metabolism: Some
plants (notably grasses and
succulents like cactus) have
developed a fancy mechanism that
allows CO2 to enter the stomata and
be temporarily fixed at night when it
is cool. During the day, the stomata
are closed and the plant does the
of photosynthesis
on the stored
ABIGAILrest
MARIE
UMALI HERNANDEZ,
CO2.
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In woody dicots (trees and shrubs), the stem grows larger by

adding new xylem and phloem cells.
The new cells are made by a cambium layer between the
xylem and phloem. At different times of the year, different sizes
of xylem cell are produced, creating an annual growth ring.
Wood is xylem cells with their cell walls thickened with lignin.
The inner areas of a trees trunk (the heartwood) no longer
functions, but the outer part (sapwood) conducts water up from
the roots.
The bark is produced by a second cambium layer, the cork
cambium, which is outside the phloem layer.

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Stems
In the stem, the xylem and phloem
cells are organized into vascular
bundles.
In monocots (grasses, lilies, orchids),
the vascular bundles are scattered
throughout the stem.
In non-woody dicots, the vascular
bundles form a ring, with the xylem
cells towards the inside and the
phloem cells on the outside.

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Roots
The roots anchor the plant to the
ground. They also take in water
and minerals from the soil.
Water and minerals are then
conducted to the rest of the
plant through the xylem
The leaves supply sugar to the
root cells through the phloem.
Two main types: fibrous roots ( a

tangle of small roots) and
taproots (a single main root)
Fibrous roots are common in
the grasses
Taproots are often enlarged for
food storage: things like carrots
and turnips.
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Root Cells Differentiate
Root structure
root cap
composed of inner columella cells and lateral root cap

cells
new root cap produced when existing cap is removed
functions in gravity perception

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Root Structure
Zone of cell division
cells divide every 12 to 36 hours toward the edges

of the concave dome
Apical meristem daughter cells divide into protoderm,
procambium, and ground meristem tissues.
Zone of elongation
roots lengthen because cells produced by primary
meristems grow longer than wide

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Root Structure
Zone of maturation
cells differentiate into specific cell types

root surface cells mature into epidermal hairs, each with
root hair
cortex produced by parenchyma cells
inner boundary differentiates into endodermis
surrounded by Casparian strips composed of suberin

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Root Structure

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Modified Roots
Most plants produce either a taproot
system (single large root with smaller
branch roots) or a fibrous root system
(many smaller roots of smaller diameter).

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Plant Body Diagram

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Organization of the Plant Body
Tissue types
ground tissue - parenchyma cells

dermal tissue - outer covering
epidermis in primary growth plants
cuticle
bark in secondary growth plants
vascular tissue - conduction

xylem - water and dissolved materials
phloem - carbohydrates

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Primary and Secondary Growth

Primary growth results from cell division at
the apical meristem at the plant tip.
Secondary growth results from cell
division at the lateral meristem, increasing
the shoots girth.

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Dermal Tissue
Epidermal cells originating from the protoderm
cover all parts of the primary plant body.
guard cells - dumbbell-shaped cells flanking
stomata
trichomes - hairlike outgrowths
regulate microclimate
root hairs - tubular extensions of epidermal cells

increase roots surface area

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Ground Tissue
Parenchyma
store food and water
Collenchyma
provide support for plant organs
Sclerenchyma
supporting function
secondary walls impregnated with lignin
fibers and sclerids
may be nonliving at maturity

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Ground Tissue

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Vascular Tissue
Xylem
principal water-conducting tissue
combination of vessels and tracheids
primary xylem derived from procambium

secondary xylem formed by vascular
cambium
wood made of accumulated secondary xylem

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Vascular Tissue
Phloem
principle food-conducting tissue in vascular
plants, located toward the outer part of roots
and stems
carried out through sieve cells and sieve-tube
members
some sieve areas (pores) have larger pores called sieve
plates
each sieve-tube member associated with companion cell

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Sieve-Tube Member

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Woody Twig

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External Stem Form

Leaf
blade - flattened portion
petiole - stalk
sessile - no petiole
axil - space between petiole and stem
axillary bud
terminal bud
stipules - appendages at base of leaf

stipule scars

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Stems

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Modified Stems
Special purpose modifications
bulbs
corms
rhizomes
runners and stolons
tubers
tendrils
cladophylls
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Leaves
Leaf external structure
microphylls - have one vein that does not
leave a gap when it branches from the
vascular cylinder of the stem
megaphylls - have several veins that leave a
gap when they branch from the vascular
cylinder of the stem

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Leaf External Structure

Simple leaves - undivided blades
Compound leaf - blade divided into leaflets
pinnately compound - leaflets arranged in
pairs along common axis
palmately compound - leaflets radiate out
from common point

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Leaf External Structure

Leaf arrangement
alternate - one leaf per node
opposite - two leaves per node
whorl - circle of leaves at same level

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Leaf Internal Structure
Epidermis has waxy cuticle and may have

tricomes
lower epidermis contains stomata flanked by
guard cells
Mesophyll - tissue between upper and lower

epidermis
Dicots have rows of cholenchyma cells
constituting the palisade mesophyll.
spongy mesophyll between palisade mesophyll and
lower epidermis
monocot mesophyll not differentiated

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Leaf Cross Section

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Modified Leaves
Modifications
floral leaves (bracts)
spines
reproductive leaves
window leaves
shade leaves
insectivorous leaves

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Flowers
Flowers are the defining
characteristic of the angiosperms
(the flowering plants). They are
the reproductive organs of the
plant.
Flowers consist of 4 whorls of
organs: sepals, petals, stamens,
and carpels.
Carpels used to be called pistils.

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The four whorls of the flower are inserted into a receptacle, which is
the tip of the flower stem.
Different plant groups have characteristic numbers of these parts:
monocot flower parts come in 3s, while dicot flower parts come in
4s (especially the mustard family) and 5s (like roses and apples).

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Four Whorls
The sepals are the outermost whorl. They are the protective
covering for the unopened flower bud. Usually sepals are green
and leaf-like.
However, sometimes the sepals are colored: in lilies there are 3 sepals
and petals that are almost identical.
The petals are the next whorl in. They are the part that are often
conspicuously colored, used to attractive animal pollinators like
bees, birds, and bats.
The petals are not always symmetical, and sometimes they are fused to
each other and to the sepals.

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The stamens are the male reproductive organs. The most important
parts of the stamens are the anthers, which release the pollen
grains. Pollen is the plant equivalent of sperm cells.
The carpels are the female reproductive organs. The most
important part of the carpel are the ovaries, which hold the ovules.
The ovule is the plant equivalent of the egg cell. After the ovules are
fertilized, the ovary develops into a fruit. Another important carpel
structure: the stigma, the sticky part where the pollen lands.

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More Flowers
Some flowers are
imperfect, which means
they contain only male
parts or only female parts.
Corn is a good example:
the tassel is the male
flower: it sheds pollen.
The silks and ears are the
female parts: each corn
kernel started out as a
single ovule.

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Perfect flowers contain both male and female parts.

This is the usual condition in plants.
Some plants have male flowers on one plant and
females on another: date palms, marijuana, holly are
example.

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The Flower What is it?

foliartheoryofflowerJ.W.
vonGoetheinAttempttoInterpret
theMetamorphosisofPlants
(1790)

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fromSchleiden1855
thus,aflowerisaspecializedshootthat:
1. isdeterminate(vs.indeterminate)
2. hasamodifiedstemwithcompressedinternodes
3. possessesmodifiedleaveswithvariousfunctions,
thesedeterminedbygenearrays(e.g.,ABCmodel)
4. oftenclusteredinaninflorescence(largerbranch)

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The Flower
1.Peduncle:floralstalk,thestem
supportingtheflower;sometimes
referredtoasthepedicel

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The Flower
2.Receptacle:modifiedfloral
stemoraxisfromwhicharise
thefloralappendagesor
modifiedleaves

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TheFlower
3.Sepal:theouterwhorlof
leaves,greenandprotection;
collectivelycalledthecalyx

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The Flower
4.Petal:thesecondwhorlof
leaves,typicallybrightly
colored,attractingpollinators;
collectivelycalledthecorolla

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The Flower
5.Perianth:collectivetermfor
sepalsandpetals
Tepalsifbothsimilar

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The Flower
8.Stamen:themalestructure
offlowercomprisingfilament
andanther
collectively,stamensarethe
androecium(=houseof
males)
canbeleaflikeinprimitive
angiosperms

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The Flower
6.Filament:slenderstalkof
thestamensupportingthe
anther;permitsexsertionof
pollenoutofflower

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The Flower
7.Anther:fertileportionof
stamenthatdehiscestorelease
pollengrains;composedof
anthersacs

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The Flower
Nectariesoftennearbaseof
stamens
producenectarrewardfor
visitorswhowillmovepollen
(pollinators)
e.g.,grassofparnassus&
fritillary
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The Flower
13.Pistil:flaskshaped,female
structurecomprisingthree
mainparts
oftenreferredtoascarpel(s)
allpistils(1ormore)are
referredtoasthegynoecium
(=houseoffemales)

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The Flower
9.Ovary:basalportionofpistil
thatcontainsovules;atmaturity
becomesfruitwithseeds
10.Ovules:fertileportionsof
pistilthatcontainafemale
gametophyte(embryosac);
developintoseedsafter
fertilization
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The Flower
12.Stigma:receptiveportion
attopofstylethatreceives
andrecognizespollen
11.Style:slenderstalkofpistil
aboveovarythatthepollen
tubesmustpassthroughto
reacheggsinovules

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The Flower
Pollinationbiology Studyofthepollen,itstransfer,andmovement
downthestyle

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The Plant Pollination Process

The following points correspond to
the diagram opposite.
1. Pollen grains land on the sticky
stigma.
2. A pollen tube grows down the style,
followed by male sperm nuclei.
3. The sperm nuclei fuse with the
female ovules.
4. The ovules develop into seed, and
the ovary develops into fruit.
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TheFlower
Pistilvs.carpel
Howdoyouknow?
3examples
Carpelsnotfused
1.Monocarpic
2.Apocarpic
Carpelsfused
3.Syncarpic
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The Flower
Monocarpic
1floralleafingynoecium
Foldedleaf
1carpel=1pistil
Thisgynoeciumis
monocarpic
(onecarpel)

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The Flower
1carpel=1pistil
legumes
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Thisgynoeciumis
monocarpic
(onecarpel)
Apocarpic
The Flower
If9leavesinoneflower
eachseparatelyforms
carpels,
thentheflowerhas9
carpelsand9pistils,
gynoeciumisapocarpic
(separatecarpels)
CalthapalustrisMarshmarigold
9fruits(pistils)from1flower
Gynoeciumisapocarpicwith9carpelsor9pistils
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The Flower
Syncarpic
3floralleavesin
gynoeciumfuse
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3carpels=1pistil
3styles
Thisgynoeciumis
syncarpic
3carpels=1pistil
1style
Thisgynoeciumis
syncarpic
The Flower
Placentationtypesarrangementofovules,
provideshintstothenumberofcarpels
Marginalfoundinall
monocarpicorapocarpic
pistils
Axilefoundin
somesyncarpic
pistils

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The Flower
Parietalfoundin
somesyncarpic
pistils

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The Flower
Parietalfoundin
somesyncarpic
pistils
Freecentralfoundin
afewsyncarpicpistils

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The Flower
Parietalfoundin
somesyncarpic
pistils
Freecentralfoundin
afewsyncarpicpistils
Basalfoundin
somemonocarpic,
apocarpic,or
syncarpicpistils
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The Flower
Symmetryplanperiantharrangementimportantinpollination
biology
Flowersradially
symmetrical
Flowersactinomorphic
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Flowersbilaterally
symmetrical
Flowerszygomorphic
The Flower
Connation:fusionoffloral
partsfromthesamewhorl
Fusionofcarpels
Fusionofstamens
Syncarpicpistil
Staminaltube

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Fusionofpetals
Corollatube
The Flower
Adnation:fusionoffloral
partsfromdifferentwhorls
Noadnation!
Connation(fusionofsimilar
parts)mayormaynotoccur

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The Flower
Adnationofcalyx,
corolla,&stamens
=hypanthium

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The Flower

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Inflorescences - Floral
Displays
Thevastmajorityoffloweringplants
possessflowersinclusterscalledan
inflorescence.
Theseclustersfacilitatepollinationvia
aprominentvisualdisplayandmore
efficientpollenuptakeanddeposition.

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Ashiftfromwidely
spacedsingleflowersto
aninflorescencerequired
condensationofshoots
andthelossofthe
interveningleaves.
Thesimplest
inflorescencetype
wouldthusbe
indeterminatewiththe
oldestflowersatthe
baseandtheyounger
flowersprogressively
closertotheapical
meristemoftheshoot.
Raceme
(Prunusorcherry)

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=araceme
Onemodificationofthebasicracemeistomakeitcompound
compound
Raceme

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Panicle
Thepanicleisessentially
aseriesofattached
racemeswiththeoldest
racemesatthebaseand
theyoungestattheapex
oftheinflorescence.
Panicle
(Zigadenusorwhitecamass)

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Asecondmodificationofthebasicracemeistoloseitspedicels
Pedicelloss
ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI

HERNANDEZ,
Raceme
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Spike
Thespikeisusually
associatedwithcongested
reducedflowersandoften,
butnotalways,withwind
pollination.
windpollinated
Spike
(Plantagoorplantain)

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animalpollinated
Thespikeisusually
associatedwithcongested
reducedflowersandoften,
butnotalways,withwind
pollination.
Spike
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(CombretumBrentsplants)
Besidestheseindeterminateinflorescencesbasedonthe
raceme,thereisaseriesofinflorescencetypesbasedon
determinateshoots(shootcannotgrowupindefinitely).
Thesimplestisthedichasium.
Raceme
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Dichasium
Thedichasiuminflorescenceis
terminated(i.e.,determinate)bythe
oldestflowerandflankedbytwolateral
youngerflowers.
oldestflower
Dichasium
youngerflowers
(Clematisorvirginsbower)
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Fruit Development

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Fruits
Fruits develop from the
wall of the ovary, the
pericarp. Fruits contain
the seeds and are
responsible for seed
dispersal.
Lots of types of fruit, we
are going to stick with a
simple classification
scheme.

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First, we classify by the number of ovaries

that make up the fruit:
Most fruits are simple fruits: the product of a single
ovary, which can contain one or many seeds
There are also aggregate and multiple fruits, which
develop from one flower that has many carpels, or
from the fusion of the ovaries form many flowers:
raspberries and pineapples for example.

R.N., M.A.N
More Fruit Classification

Second, three categories of
fruit appearance:
Fleshy: what we think of
as fruit: a soft, juicy layer
surrounding the seeds.
This layer causes an
animal to eat the fruit and
carry the seeds to new
locations in its digestive
system, depositing the
seeds with a load of
fertilizer.
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Dry: the pericarp is either tough and woody or thin

and papery.
Some dry fruit is dehiscent, which means it splits
open to release the seeds, like pea pods or
milkweed or poppy
Other dry fruit is indehiscent, meaning that the
seeds stay inside the fruit, like the winged seeds of
maple trees and cereal grains.

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Seeds
Seeds develop from the fertilized ovule.
Their DNA comes from the pollen (father) as
well as from the ovule (mother).
In contrast, the fruits DNA is strictly from
the maternal plant.
Inside the seed, the plant has both a root and
a shoot.
Seeds contain a food source as well as the
embryo. Until photosynthesis gets started,
the new plant needs to live on stored food.

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The cotyledons are the first leaves of the new plant. They are
fully formed in the seed. The cotyledons unfold when the seed
germinates.
Major difference between monocots and dicots:
Monocots have a single cotyledon (which is what monocot
means). They use endosperm (the other product of double
fertilization) as food.
Dicots have two cotyledon leaves. Before the seed in fully
formed, the dicot cotyledons absorb the nutrients from the
endosperm, so dicot seeds use food stored in the cotyledons,
not the endosperm.

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Seed Germination
Seeds need proper conditions of moisture, oxygen, and temperature to germinate.

Some seeds will only germinate if they have been through a cold spell, or if they have had
their seed coats injured by fire or abrasion.
Seeds of the Tambalacoque tree on the island of Mauritius (in the Indian Ocean)
apparently only germinated when passed through the digestive system of the dodo (which
is extinct). Turkeys work as an adequate substitute. (this story may not be 100% true)
The dry seed imbibes water, and the root sprouts, followed by the shoot.
Once the shoot breaks through the surface of the ground, it is exposed to light,
which allows it to develop chlorophyll and start photosynthesis.

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Legal Fruits
Botanically, a fruit is an ovary that has ripened after
fertilization.
However, in 1883 a 10% duty was placed on all
vegetables being imported into the US.
John Nix, an imported from New Jersey, argued that he
shouldnt have to pay the duty on tomatoes, because
botanists consider them fruits.

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The case went all the way to the Supreme Court (which means
at least 3 separate courts examined the question). In 1893,
the Court ruled that for legal purposes, tomatoes were a
vegetable, not a fruit.
Based on popular usage: vegetables (including tomatoes) are
eaten at dinner, while fruits are sweet and are eaten at dessert.
Tomatoes are the state vegetable of New Jersey. Ohio
considers tomatoes to be the state fruit. In Arkansas, tomatoes
are both the state vegetable and the state fruit (indecisive).

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Tomato Fight!
In Spain, they
have an annual
tomato fight

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Plant Evolutionary Trends

Plants are thought to have evolved from the green algae,
which live in the water.
By moving onto the land, plants had to deal with 2 big
issues: gravity ( or lack of buoyancy) and dryness.
Major trends:
1. development of roots, shoots, vascular system.
Roots needs to absorb nutrients, not just hold onto
the surface. Shoots need to support photosynthetic
system off the ground. Vascular system to transport
materials between parts of the plant. Waxy cuticle on
the leaves to prevent desiccation.

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2. increasing the diploid phase of the life cycle, and decreasing

the haploid phase. Diploid gives a backup copy of each gene,
as a defense against random mutations. Allows a larger, more
complex body.
3. Seed and pollen protection and dispersal. Development of
very different male and female gametes, so only one type needs
to be dispersed in the environment. The pollen (male gametes)
needs to be protected from desiccation, and needs to find the
female gametes successfully. Seeds also need to be protected
from harsh conditions and to disperse to new locations.
4. Flowers and fruits used to attract animals to help spread
pollen and offspring.

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Major Plant Groups

We are going to briefly
examine several groups
that show these trends:
1. bryophytes: nonvascular plants including
liverworts and mosses
2. seedless vascular
plants such as ferns and
horsetails
3. gymnosperms, which
have seeds and a vascular
system, such as the
conifers
4. angiosperms, the
flowering plants that
dominate the world today.

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Bryophytes
The bryophytes include the mosses,

liverworts, and hornworts. They are short
plants mostly growing in wet
environments.
Bryophytes have a waxy cuticle on their
leaves to prevent desiccation.
Bryophytes have no internal vascular
system.
Bryophytes spend most of their lives as
haploids: the body of the moss plant is
haploid.

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The only diploid structure is a stalk and spore

capsule, which grow out of the haploid plant
body.
Peat moss is used to help soil hold water. It can
also be used as fireplace fuel when it is dried.
Peat bogs are very acidic, which allows plants
like cranberries and blueberries to grow.
Also, the acidic conditions preserve animal bodies
several humans who lived up to 5000 years ago have
been dug out of peat bogs.

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Bryophyte Life Cycle

The haploid gametophyte
plant bodies are either
male or female. Each
produces a different kind of
gamete (eggs or sperm) at
the tip of the plant body.
The sperm are motile: they
swim through drops of
water (rain or dew) to reach
the eggs. The eggs are
encased within the female
gametophytes body.

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After fertilization, the diploid sporophyte grows

as a stalk out of the female gametophytes body.
After the diploid sporophyte matures, the cells in
it undergo meiosis, forming haploid spores.
The haploid spores disperse in the wind, and go
on to form new gametophyte plants.

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Seedless
Vascular Plants
The seedless vascular plants

include ferns and horsetails.
A vascular system to distribute
nutrients throughout the plant
allows them to grow tall. Some
ferns grow up to 80 feet tall, and
some extinct horsetails were also
tree-sized.
Being seedless means that the
diploid sporophyte grows out of
the fertilized egg, attached to the
gametophyte.

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The diploid sporophyte is much larger

than the haploid gametophyte stage: most
of what you see in these plants is the
sporophyte.
The sperm have flagella and swim to the
eggs through drops of water (just like the
bryophytes).
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Fern Life Cycle
The main plant body in the diploid

sporophyte. Specialized
structures on the underside of the
leaves develop, and inside them
meiosis occurs.
The haploid meiotic products are
released as spores, which are
dispersed to new locations and
germinate into gametophytes.
The haploid gametophytes are
quite small, a few millimeters in
diameter. They contain structures
that produce sperm and eggs.
The sperm swim to the eggs and
fertilize them
The fertilized eggs are diploid, and
they grow into the sporophyte
plant body.

R.N., M.A.N
Seeds and Pollen
A major development in plant

evolution was the development
of pollen grains and seeds.
Pollen grains are the male
gametophyte packaged in a
hard coat that allows it to
reach the female without
having to swim through water.
This is a large advantage on
dry land.

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Seeds are diploid sporophyte embryos,

packaged to survive a period of dormancy
and bad environmental conditions. Seeds
develop from the fertilized egg. They are
multicellular: small plants that need very
little growth to live independently.

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Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms were the
first plants to have pollen
grains and seeds.
Gymnosperm means
naked seed: their seeds
develop on the outside of
the plant, instead of inside
an ovary as in the flowering
plants.
The most important
gymnosperms today are
the conifers: pines,
redwoods, cedars, etc. All
are woody plants with
needles or scales as
leaves.
R.N., M.A.N
Conifers are our main source of wood and

paper.
Ginkos and cycads are other
gymnosperms.
Cycads were the dominant plant type in the
Mesozoic era

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Angiosperms
Angiosperms are
flowering plants. Most of
the plants we see are
angiosperms.
Unlike the other plant
groups, angiosperms are
often fertilized with the
aid of animals: insects,
birds, bats, that carry the
pollen from one plant to
another. The plants and
their pollinators have coevolved in a symbiotic
relationship.
R.N., M.A.N
Flowers produce the visual signals and the

scents that pollinators use to find the plants.
Flowers secrete nectar which is eaten by the
pollinators. The pollen is carried from flower to
flower on the body of the pollinator, as a
consequence of its going into the flower in
search of nectar.
Some angiosperms have wind-dispersed pollen.
Flowers on these plants are usually small and
inconspicuous.

R.N., M.A.N
Angiosperm Life Cycle
Most of the angiosperms life is the

diploid sporophyte stage.
The male gametophyte is the pollen
grain; the female gametophyte is the
ovule.
Angiosperms have double
fertilization: 2 sperm fertilize different
cells in the ovule, producing the
diploid embryo and the triploid
endosperm.
The embryo develops into a seed, a
small immature plant, which goes into
a dormant phase.
The seed germinates, putting our a
root and a shoot. The shoot turns
green and starts photosynthesis
when light hits it.

R.N., M.A.N
Angiosperm Groups
Flowering plants used to be

split into 2 groups: monocots
and dicots.
More recently it has become
clear that several groups split
off from the main evolutionary
lineage before the monocots
did.

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Now, we can divide the angiosperms into 3 main groups:

the basal angiosperms, the monocots, and the
eudicots.
--basal angiosperms are not a single unified group. We
are just throwing them together for convenience.

R.N., M.A.N
Basal Angiosperms
Most basal, meaning the earliest to split off

from the main lineage: Amborella. A group of
shrubs growing on the island of New Caledonia
in the Pacific Ocean east of Australia.
Magnolia and relatives is the largest group of
basal angiosperms. Several useful ones:
nutmeg, bay laurel, cinnamon, avocado, black
pepper.
Water lilies are another group of basal
angiosperms.

R.N., M.A.N
Monocots
Monocots are a very large group.
One cotyledon leaf. The cotyledons are the leaves
found in the seeds that push up above the soil
when the seed imbibes water and starts to grow.
Parallel leaf veins
Flower parts in groups of 3
Scattered vascular bundles. Means there are no
woody monocots.
Main groups: grasses, lilies, orchids, palms,

onions.

R.N., M.A.N
Eudicots
The largest group of plants today.
Many groups, mostly of interest only to botanists.
We will often speak of plant families. A few

examples:
Nightshade family: tomato, potato, tobacco,
capsicum pepper
Rose family: apples, cherries, strawberries
Legume family: peas, beans

R.N., M.A.N
Meiosis and Fertilization
All plants except the most

primitive ones (the bryophytes)
are basically diploid. This means
that every cell has two sets of
chromosomes, one from each
parent, just like us.
For reproduction to occur, the
plants must produce haploid
cells, the gametes. Gametes
have one copy of every
chromosome.

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The male gamete (pollen) fertilizes the female

gamete (ovule) to produce the zygote, the first
cell of the new individual. The zygote is diploid.
Meiosis is the cell division process that creates
haploid gametes from the diploid plant cells.

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Pollination
Pollination is the process of getting the pollen
to the stigma of the female plant.
Some plants allow self-fertilization: the
male pollen fertilizes the female ovule of
the same plant. This is the closest
possible genetic cross, and it isnt
possible in animals.
Most of the time it is advantageous to
have cross-pollination: the pollen from one
plant fertilizes the ovules of another plant.
This increases the genetic diversity of the
offspring, which means more will survive
under varying conditions.

R.N., M.A.N
Wind pollination is how all gymnosperms are pollinated.

Also, angiosperms with small, inconspicuous flowers.
Grasses are a good example.
The plant produces huge numbers of pollen grains,
which get blown off the anthers by the wind, and
occasionally end up on the female parts of another
plant of the same species. Not very efficient.

R.N., M.A.N
Animal Pollination
Animal pollination is much more efficient

than wind pollination: the animal delivers
the pollen directly to the female.
Bees, butterflies, wasps, birds, bats
very ancient plants like magnolia are
pollinated by beetles. Bees hadn't evolved
when these flowers first appeared.

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Plants attract animals by supplying them with food. Nectar

is a sugary liquid secreted by glands at the base of the
flower: the animal eats it. Animals also eat the pollen.
However, some pollen gets on the animal and gets carried
to the next flower, where is gets deposited on the stigma.
So, the animal isn't pollinating just to be helpful. The
animal is feeding, and pollination is just an accidental
byproduct.
Plants also supply guiding signals: flower color, pattern,
scent

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Co-evolution
Animal pollination is a major evolutionary innovation in the

angiosperms, and the plants and animals have modified each other
through the process of co-evolution to make it more efficient for both.
Natural selection for mutations in the plant that make it more
attractive to a pollinator: the mutant plants are fertilized more
frequently than the original plants.
Natural selection for mutations in the animal to make it more
efficient at finding the proper plant and extracting the nectar.
Some examples:
flowers with long throats are pollinated by hummingbirds with long
beaks.
Rotting meat smell attracts fly pollinators.
Orchid flowers look enough like the pollinating wasp that the wasps
try to mate with them.

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Bees don't see the color red, but they do see blue and
UV. Bee-pollinated flowers are usually blue or purple,
and often have patterns visible in the UV range.
Butterflies can see red and all other colors, but have a
poor sense of smell. They also need a wide perch to
land on. Butterfly-pollinated flowers are large and bright,
with little scent.
Moths are nocturnal and have a good sense of smell.
Moth-pollinated flowers are white so they can be seen at
night, and have a strong scent.

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Coevolution Examples

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Fertilization
Once pollen has been
deposited on the stigma, the
process of fertilization occurs.
Angiosperms (flowering
plants) have a unique process
called double fertilization.
Found in all angiosperms but
no other organisms.
The pollen grain grows a long
tube down the carpel until it
reaches an ovule in the ovary.
Two sperm nuclei then enter

the ovule.
R.N., M.A.N
One sperm nucleus fuses with an ovule nucleus

to form the zygote, the first cell of the new
individual. The zygote starts dividing and
becomes an embryo. This is the equivalent of
fertilization in animals.
The other sperm nucleus fuses with two other
ovule nuclei to form the endosperm, which is a
nutritive tissue for the developing seed. Most of
the food found in grains like wheat, rice and
maize is the endosperm.

R.N., M.A.N
Post-Fertilization
The embryo develops into a seed.
Seeds are multicellular, fully formed, miniature plants
that are in a dormant state. This allows them to survive
winter or other bad conditions, and then to quickly turn
into functioning plants when conditions improve.
In contrast, lower plants have single-celled spores
instead of seeds. Spores can only survive briefly, and it
takes a long time to get from a single cell to a large
mature organism.

R.N., M.A.N
Sepals, petals, and stamens wither away.

The ovary increases in size and becomes
a fruit, which contains the seeds.
Fruits are a mechanism for seed dispersal.
As with pollination, some fruits use animals
for dispersal, and other fruits use the wind.

R.N., M.A.N

Botany

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Botany

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BOTANY

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

It has faith in the dignity of human

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Thus, the institution believes that the

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Promote moral and spiritual development

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Develop cultural, economic and socio-civic

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Strengthen involvement in community

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Attain institutional self-reliance through

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Ensure financial viability and profitability

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Botany: the Study of Plants

Excludes algae (live in water) and fungi (no photosynthesis)

All of these have been traditionally part of botany, in which plants

However, some plants dont photosynthesize (parasites) or

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

all cells are surrounded by a cell

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells

Chloroplasts were originally free-living photosynthetic bacteria that got

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Cell Walls and Vacuoles

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

In cells needed for support or water conduction, the cell wall is

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Photosynthesis uses energy from

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Two parts to photosynthesis: light reactions (occur only

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Meristems are special regions where cell division

Two basic types: xylem and phloem

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Ground tissue is all the rest of the cells in the plant.

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

root apical meristem protected by root cap

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Give rise to three types of primary meristems

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Most trees, shrubs, and some herbs have

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

Organization of the Plant Body

Vascular plant consists of:

root system - anchors plant and penetrates soil to

ABIGAIL MARIE UMALI HERNANDEZ,

The Plant Body

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Stems hold the leaves and flowers up in the air: off

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The spongy tissue below the palisade layer carries

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Stomata in the Leaves

In woody dicots (trees and shrubs), the stem grows larger by