Frequency Response

Frequency Response Analysis

Sinusoidal Forcing of a First-Order Process
For a first-order transfer function with gain K and time constant ,
the response to a general sinusoidal input, x t A sin t is:
y t

KA
2 2

e t / cos t sin t

(5-25)

Note that y(t) and x(t) are in deviation form. The long-time
response, yl(t), can be written as:
KA
yl t
sin
t for
t
(13-1)

2 2 1
where:
tan 1
2

Figure 13.1 Attenuation and time shift between input and output
sine waves (K= 1). The phase angle of the output signal is given
o
by Time shift / P 360 , where t is the (period) shift and P
is the period of oscillation.
3

Frequency Response Characteristics of

a First-Order Process

For x(t ) A sin t , yl t A sin t as

KA
2 2 1

and

tan

t where :

1. The output signal is a sinusoid that has the same frequency,

as the input.signal, x(t) =Asint.
2. The amplitude of the output signal, A , is a function of the
frequency and the input amplitude, A:
A

KA
2 2 1

(13-2)

3. The output has a phase shift, , relative to the input. The

amount of phase shift depends on .

Dividing both sides of (13-2) by the input signal amplitude A

yields the amplitude ratio (AR)
A
K
AR
(13-3a)
A
2 2 1
which can, in turn, be divided by the process gain to yield the
normalized amplitude ratio (ARN)
AR N

1
2 2 1

(13-3b)

Shortcut Method for Finding

the Frequency Response
The shortcut method consists of the following steps:
Step 1. Set s=j in G(s) to obtain G j .
Step 2. Rationalize G(j); We want to express it in the form.
G(j)=R + jI
where R and I are functions of Simplify G(j) by
multiplying the numerator and denominator by the
complex conjugate of the denominator.
Step 3. The amplitude ratio and phase angle of G(s) are given
by:
AR R 2 I 2

Memorize

tan 1 ( I / R)
6

Example 13.1
Find the frequency response of a first-order system, with
1
G s
s 1

Solution

(13-16)

First, substitute s j in the transfer function

1
1
G j

j 1 j 1

(13-17)

Then multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex

conjugate of the denominator, that is, j 1
j 1
j 1
G j
2 2
j 1 j 1 1

1
2 2

2 2

R jI

(13-18)
7

where:

AR

1 1 1
2
2 2
2 2

1
I
2 2
R

2 2

2 2

(13-19a)

(13-20a)

(13-19b)

From Step 3 of the Shortcut Method,

2

2
2
AR R I 2 2 2 2
1 1
1

or

Also,

I
tan tan 1 tan 1
R

(13-20b)
8

Complex Transfer Functions

Consider a complex transfer G(s),
Ga s Gb s Gc s L
G s
G1 s G2 s G3 s L
Substitute s=j
G j

(13-22)

Ga j Gb j Gc j L
G1 j G2 j G3 j L

(13-23)

From complex variable theory, we can express the magnitude and

angle of G j as follows:
G j

Ga j Gb j Gc j L
G1 j G2 j G3 j L

(13-24a)

G j Ga j Gb j Gc j L
[
G1 j

G2

G3

j] L
(13-24b)

Bode Diagrams
A special graph, called the Bode diagram or Bode plot,
provides a convenient display of the frequency response
characteristics of a transfer function model. It consists of
plots of AR and as a function of .
Ordinarily, is expressed in units of radians/time.
Bode Plot of A First-order System
1
ARRecall:

and tan
N
2 2
1

At low frequencies ( 0 and = 1) :

AR N 1 and
At high frequencies ( and ? 1) :
10

AR N 1/ and o

Figure 13.2 Bode diagram for a first-order process.

11

 Note that the asymptotes intersect at b 1/ , known as the

break frequency or corner frequency. Here the value of ARN
from (13-21) is:
AR
N

0.707

11

(13-30)

Some books and software defined AR differently, in terms of

decibels. The amplitude ratio in decibels ARd is defined as
AR d 20 log AR

(13-33)

12

Integrating Elements
The transfer function for an integrating element was given in
Chapter 5:
Y s K
G s

(5-34)
U s s
AR G j

K
K

(13-34)
j

G j K 90o

(13-35)

Second-Order Process
A general transfer function that describes any underdamped,
critically damped, or overdamped second-order system is
K
G s 2 2
(13-40)
s 2s 1

13

Substituting s j and rearranging yields:

AR

2 2 2

(13-41a)
2

2
2 2
1

tan 1

2
(13-41b)

Figure 13.3 Bode diagrams for second-order processes.

14

Time Delay
Its frequency response characteristics can be obtained by
substituting s j ,
G j e j

(13-53)

which can be written in rational form by substitution of the

Euler identity,
G j e j cos j sin
(13-54)
From (13-54)
2
2
AR G jcos

sin

(13-55)

or

sin
G j tan

cos

(13-56)
15

Figure 13.6 Bode diagram for a time delay, e s.

16

Figure 13.7 Phase angle plots for e s and for the 1/1 and 2/2
Pad approximations (G1 is 1/1; G2 is 2/2).
17

Process Zeros
Consider a process zero term,
Substituting s=j gives
G j K ( j 1)
Thus:G s K (s 1)
AR G j K 1

2 2

G j tan 1
Note: In general, a multiplicative constant (e.g., K) changes
the AR by a factor of K without affecting .
18

Frequency Response Characteristics of

Feedback Controllers
Proportional Controller. Consider a proportional controller with
positive gain
Gc s K c

(13-57)

In this case Gc j K c , which is independent of .

Therefore,
AR c K c
and

c 0o

(13-58)
(13-59)

19

Proportional-Integral Controller. A proportional-integral (PI)

controller has the transfer function (cf. Eq. 8-9),

I s 1
1
Gc s K c 1 K c

s
I
I

Substitute s=j:
Gc

1
j K c 1
K c
I j

(13-60)

1
j I 1
K c 1
j
j I
I

Thus, the amplitude ratio and phase angle are:

AR
c Gc j 1 K c

Kc

1
(13-62)

c Gc j tan 1 1/ I tan 1 I 90o

(13-63)
20

 10 s 1
Figure 13.9 Bode plot of a PI controller, Gc s 2

10
s

21

Ideal Proportional-Derivative Controller. For the ideal

proportional-derivative (PD) controller (cf. Eq. 8-11)
Gc s K c 1

Ds

(13-64)

The frequency response characteristics are similar to those of a

LHP zero:
AR
c K c 1

tan 1 D

(13-65)
(13-66)

Proportional-Derivative Controller with Filter. The PD

controller is most often realized by the transfer function
D s 1
Gc s K c

(13-67)
22

Figure 13.10 Bode

plots of an ideal PD
controller and a PD
controller with
derivative filter.
Idea: Gc s 2 4 s 1
With Derivative
Filter:
4s 1
Gc s 2

0.4 s 1

23

PID Controller Forms

Parallel PID Controller. The simplest form in Ch. 8 is

1
Gc s K c 1

1s

D s

Series PID Controller. The simplest version of the series PID

controller is
1s 1
Gc s K c
(13-73)
D s 1
1s
Series PID Controller with a Derivative Filter.

1s 1
D s 1
Gc s K c

1
D 1
24

Figure 13.11 Bode

plots of ideal parallel
PID controller and
series PID controller
with derivative filter
( = 1).
Idea parallel:

Gc s 2 1
4s
10 s

Series with
Derivative Filter:
4 s 1
10 s 1
Gc s 2

10
s
0.4
s

25

Nyquist Diagrams
Consider the transfer function

with

1
G s
2s 1
AR G j

(13-76)
1

2 1
2

(13-77a)

and
G j tan 1 2

(13-77b)

26

Figure 13.12 The Nyquist diagram for G(s) = 1/(2s + 1)

plotting ReG
j and Im G . j
27

Figure 13.13 The Nyquist diagram for the transfer

function in Example 13.5:

5(8s 1)e 6 s
G ( s)
(20 s 1)(4 s 1)
28