Chapter 2

The Technical Core:

Learning and Teaching

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Levels of Organizational Structure

TalcottParsons:Threelevelsofstructureinorganizations

Technical
Managerial
Institutional
TechnicalCore:systemoforganizationalactivitywherethe
productoftheorganizationisproduced.
Inschools,theteachinglearningprocess,asthetechnical
core,shapesmanyadministrativedecisions.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Learning Defined

Learning:experienceproducesastablechangeinsomeonesknowledgeor
behavior.
Changemustoccurbecauseofexperience,whetherornotthelearning
isintentionalorunintentional

Noonebestexplanationoflearning,butthreegeneraltheories:
Behavioraltheories:stressobservablechangesinbehaviors,skills,and
habits
Cognitivetheories:stressinternalmentalactivitiessuchasthinking,
remembering,creating,andproblemsolving
Constructivisttheories:stresshowindividualsmakemeaningofevents
andactivities.Learning=constructionofknowledge

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Behavioral Perspective on
Learning

Behaviorists not concerned primarily with mental or internal

processes, but rather with changes in behavior brought
about by experience.

B.F. Skinner and his followers emphasize antecedents and

consequences as mechanisms for changing behavior.

Environmental influences (antecedents and consequences)

shape all behavior, in the A-B-C pattern:
Antecedent-behavior-consequence: antecedent precedes
behavior, which is followed by a consequence
Consequences of behavior become antecedents for next
ABC sequence
Change behavior by changing antecedents,
consequences,
or both
W. K. Hoy
2003, 2008, 2011

Consequences

Earlybehavioralworkfocusedonconsequencesmorethanantecedents.

Kindofconsequenceandtimingofconsequencewillstrengthenor
weakenindividualspropensityforacertainbehavior.

Twokindsofconsequences:ReinforcementandPunishment
Reinforcementstrengthensorincreasesfrequencyofbehavior.
Punishmentweakensorsuppressesbehavior.
Becarefulnottoconfusepunishmentwithnegativereinforcement:
nomatterhowyoureinforce,ifyourereinforcingyoure
strengtheningbehavior.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Reinforcement

Reinforcer:consequencethatstrengthensbehaviorthatitfollows.

Oneindividualsreinforcermightnotbeareinforcerforsomeoneelse:
responsesarehighlyindividualized

Somepsychologistssayreinforcerssatisfyneeds;othersarguethey
reducetensionsorstimulateparticularpartsofthebrain.

Strengthofreinforcementdependsuponindividualsperceptionofthe
event,andthemeaningitholds.

Twomaintypesofreinforcement:positiveandnegative

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Positive and Negative

Reinforcement

Positivereinforcement:occurswhenabehaviorproducesanew
stimulusormotivatingforce
Whenaconsequencestrengthensabehaviorbyaddingastimulus,
thebehaviorhasbeenpositivelyreinforced

Negativereinforcement:occurswhenabehaviorremovesor
eliminatesastimulus
Ifbehaviorresultsineliminationofanegativestimulus,itsmore
likelytoberepeated:thebehaviorhasbeennegativelyreinforced

Bothtypesofreinforcementstrengthenbehavior:positivethrough
addingstimuli;negativebysubtractingstimuli
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Punishment

Ifreinforcementstrengthensbehavior,punishmentsuppressesit:
behaviorfollowedbypunishmentislesslikelytoberepeated
Aswithreinforcers,punishmentsaresomewhatindividualized:what
punishesoneindividualmightnotbeperceivedaspunishmentbyanother

Twomaintypesofpunishment:
1.DirectPunishment(TypeI)
Directpunishment:appearanceofstimulusfollowingbehavior
suppressesorweakensbehavior.
2.RemovalPunishment(TypeII)
Removalpunishment:stimulusisremovedfollowingbehaviorinorderto
weakenorsuppressit.

BothtypessuppressbehaviorDirectpunishmentbyadding
somethingtostopit,andremovalpunishmentbywithholding
something
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Antecedents

Antecedentsprecedebehavior
Helpindividualsdistinguishbetweenbehaviorsthatleadtopositive
consequencesandbehaviorsthatleadtonegativeconsequences:
individuallearnstoreadtheantecedent.

Notalwaysthecasethatpeopleareconsciousofreadingtheantecedent,
butcuesandpromptscanbedeliberatelyusedtoinfluencebehavior.

Cueing:providinganantecedentjustpriortoaparticularbehavior.
Furnishesinformationaboutwhichbehaviorswillbepunishedand
whichreinforced.
Allowsteachers,parentstoreinforcebehaviorwithoutresortingto
punishment.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Prompting

Prompting:providinganadditionalcueafterthefirstcue

Twoprinciplesforusingcuesandpromptseffectively:
Makesureenvironmentalstimulusyouwantasacueoccursright
beforeyourprompt
Fadethepromptassoonaspossible

Example:checklistwhenstudentsworkinpairsonpeertutoring
Graduallyremovethesupportofthechecklist,whichservesasa
prompt,whenstudentsinternalizeprocedures
Monitorprogress,reinforcegoodwork,correctmistakes

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Teaching Applications

Guidingprinciplesforteachingcontexts:

Clear,systematicpraiseforgenuineaccomplishments
Linksuccesstoeffortandabilityinordertobuildconfidence
Makesurereinforcersarethingsstudentsvalue
Giveplentyofreinforcementwhenintroducingnewmaterial
Setclearandspecificgoalssoyouknowwhattoreinforce
Offeravarietyofreinforcersandallowstudentstochoose
Structuresituationaroundnegativereinforcementratherthanpunishment
Usecuestohelpestablishnewbehavior

Specificapproachesthatutilizebehavioralprinciples:theGoodBehavior
Game,PositiveBehaviorSupport(PBS)basedonaFunctionalBehavioral
Assessment(FBA),learningobjectives,anddirectinstruction

Mostusefulwhenlearningnewbehaviorsorexplicitinformation,and
whenlearningissequentialorfactual

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Positive Behavior Support based on a

Functional Behavioral Assessment
FBAWhatarestudentsgettingoutofthenegative
behavior?
1.Receiveattentionfromothersteachers,parent,orpeers.
2.Escapefromsomeunpleasantsituationanacademicorsocial
demand.
3.Getadesireditemoractivity.
4.Meetsensoryneeds,suchasstimulationfromrockingorflapping
armsforsomechildrenwithautism.

PBSWhatpositivebehaviorscouldleadtothesameresults
andwhatwillsupportthestudentinlearningthenewpositive
behaviors?
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Learning Objectives

Instructionalobjective:clearandunambiguousdescriptionofteachers
educationalaimsforstudents

RobertMager:objectivesshoulddescribewhatstudentswillbedoingto
demonstratetheirachievement,howteacherwillknowwhenstudentshave
succeeded

Threepartstogoodobjectives:

1.Intendedstudentbehavior:whatmuststudentdo?
2.Conditionsunderwhichbehavioroccurs:howwillbehaviorberecognized
ortested?
3.Criteriaforacceptableperformance:howwellhasstudentdone?

Objectivesusefulundercertainspecificconditions:

Moresuccessfulinpromotinglearningwithlooselystructuredactivities
Usefulwhensignificanceofinformationisunclearfromlearningmaterialsand
activitiesthemselves,i.e.,objectiveshelpfocusstudentsattentiononlearning
goals

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Direct Instruction

A.K.A.,explicitteachingoractiveteaching
Bestappliedtoteachingofbasicskills:sciencefacts,mathematical
computations,vocabularyandgrammarrules
Taughtstepbystep,assessedwithstandardizedtests

BarakRosenshine:SixTeachingFunctionsofeffectivedirect
instruction
1.Reviewandcheckpreviousdayswork
2.Presentnewmaterial
3.Provideguidedpractice
4.Givefeedbackandcorrectivesbasedonstudentanswers
5.Provideindependentpractice
6.Reviewweeklyandmonthly

OtherdirectinstructionapproachesHunter;Good,Grouws,and
Ebmeierdrawonsimilarelementsofeffectiveinstruction
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Cognitive Perspectives on
Learning

Cognitivetheoristsfocusonthinking,learning,conceptualization,and
problemsolving

Learningisanactivementalprocess:weplanourresponses,usesystems
tohelpusremember,andorganizematerials

Putstheindividualbackinthelearningprocess:whatwebringtothe
learningsituationhasahugeinfluenceonhowandwhatwelearn

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Categorizing Knowledge

Knowledgeasbothmeansandend:existingknowledgeguidesnew
learningthescaffoldthatsupportstheconstructionofallfuturelearning
Generalknowledgevs.Domainspecificknowledge:
General:appliestoavarietyofsituations
Domainspecific:relatestoparticulartaskorsubject
Alsocategorizeknowledgebyhowitsmanifested
Declarativeknowledge:canbedeclared,usuallyinwords
Proceduralknowledge:knowinghowtodosomethingknowledge
thatisdemonstrated
Selfregulatory:knowingwhenandwhytoapplydeclarativeand
proceduralknowledge

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Information-Processing Model

Earlyviewshadtheanalogybetweenmindandcomputer:information
storedinthreestoragesystems
Sensorymemory:holdingsystemthatmaintainsstimulisothat
perceptualanalysiscanoccur
Workingmemory:(shorttermmemory)holds59bitsofinfoatatime
forupto20seconds
Longtermmemory:storeshugeamountsofinfoforlongperiodsof
time;maybecodedverballyorvisuallyorboth
Memory=reconstruction:leadstoaccurate,partlyaccurate,orinaccurate
recall;accurateretrievaldependspartlyonhowinfowaslearned.
Amorerecentviewofmemoryandcognitioniscalledcognitivescience,
whichemphasizestheroleofworkingmemory,attention,sensory
memory,andinteractionsoftheelementsofthesystem.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Sensory Memory

Sensorymemory=theinitialsystemthatbrieflyholdsstimuliweperceive
throughoursenses;othernamesforsensorymemoryaresensorybuffer,
iconicbuffer(forimages),andechoicmemoryforsounds.

Weattendtosomestimuliandnottoothersthisattentionisfirststepin
learning.

Achallengetoteachersistostructureclassroomenvironmenttogetand
keepstudentattentionatoutsetoflessonandkeepthemfocused
throughouttheclass.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Working Memory

Workingmemorydefined:wherenewinformationisheldbrieflyand
combinedwithknowledgefromlongtermmemory.

Resemblesscreenofcomputercontentisactivatedinformation,inthe
momentconsciousness.

Capacity=59separatenewitemsatonceortheamountofinfowecan
rehearseinabout1.5seconds

Recenttheories:twoworkingmemorysystemsoneforlanguagebased
information,onefornonverbal,spatial,visualinformation

Durationofinfoinworkingmemoryisshort:520seconds.

Easilyoverwhelmedifcognitiveload(especiallyextraneousload)istoo
great.

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Retaining Info in Working

Memory

Useitorloseit:ifinfoinworkingmemoryisnotactivated,itfades

Mostpeopleengageinspecificstrategiestokeepit

Rehearsal:2types
Maintenancerehearsalrepeatinginformationinyourmind
Elaborativerehearsalassociatingtheinfowithsomethingyou
alreadyknow(infoinlongtermmemory)

Notonlyimprovesworkingmemory,butalsohelpschannelinfofrom
shorttolongtermmemory

Chunking:grouporchunkindividualbitsofinformationintomeaningful
units(sizedoesntmatter,#ofbitsdoes)

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Long-Term Memory

Longtermmemoryholdsinformationthatwemovefromworking
memoryforindefinitestorage

Virtuallyunlimited,butnotalwayseasytoaccessspecificinformation
ifmuchisstoredoveralongtime

3mainkindsoflongtermmemory:
1.Episodic:associatedwithparticulartimesandplacespersonal
memoriesofeventsofyourownlife
2.Procedural:howtodothingsmaytakeawhile,butoncelearned,such
knowledgeisrememberedforalongtime
3.Semantic:memoryformeaning:generalconcepts,principles,andtheir
associations

2importantwaysofstoringsemanticmemory
Images:visualrepresentationsmindseye
Schemas:abstractstructures,patterns,systems,scripts
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Storage and Retrieval

Howinfoisprocessedinitiallyhasimpactonrecall.
Morelikelytoremembernewmaterialifyouintegrateitwithinformation
alreadystoredinlongtermmemory.
3waystofacilitatethiskindofintegration:
1.Elaboration:addmeaningtonewinfobyconnectingittoexisting
knowledge(applyschemas,forinstance,ormakeanalogies).
Easiertorecallbecauseelaborationactslikerehearsalkeepsmemory
activatedlongerinworkingmemory,whichdeepensitsimprintinlong
termmemory.
2.Organization:structuringinformationhelpsyourememberbothgeneral
ideasandspecificexamples;structurehelpsmapyourwaybacktoinfowhen
youneedit.
3.Context:welearnphysicalandemotionalaspectsofcontextalongwiththe
informationweprocesswithinthatcontext;replicatingcontexthelpsrecallthe
information.

Bottomline:themorecompletelyinformationisprocessedwhenwefirst
learnit,thebetterourchancesofrememberingit.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Metacognition

Metacognition:individualsawarenessofhis/herowncognitiveprocesses
andhowtheywork.

Canintentionallyusemetacognitiveunderstandingtoregulatelearning
Planning:decidinghowmuchtimetogivetoatask,whatstrategiesto
use,howtobegin,etc.
Monitoring:awarenessofhowmuch,howwellImlearning
Evaluation:judgmentsaboutoutcomesofthinkingandlearning
effectivenessofstrategies,timeallocation,etc.

Metacognitiveskillsbegintodevelopatages5to7,andgenerallyimprove
throughoutschool.

Superiormetacognitiveskillscancompensateforlowerlevelsofability,
andcanbetaught.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Teaching Applications

Someguidingprinciplesforteaching:
Usepreviousknowledge,connectionstofocusattentionandaid
encoding
Helpstudentsorganizematerialinmeaningfulchunks
Providereview,repetition,andcontextualization
Exercisemetacognitiveskills

Commontechniquesconsistentwithcognitiveapproaches:
Underliningorhighlighting
Notetaking
Visualaids
Mnemonics
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Constructivist Perspectives on
Learning

Ancestors:Dewey,Piaget,Vygotsky,Gestaltpsychology

Keyassumption:peoplecreateandconstructknowledgeratherthan
internalizeitfromtheexternalenvironment

Severaldifferentapproachestoconstructivism:
Psychological/IndividualPiaget
RadicalPostmodern
SocialVygotsky

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Psychological Constructivism

Emphasizestheindividualsreconstructionofexternalreality

Buildaccuraterepresentationsoftheoutsideworld,oftenusingprocesses
consistentwithcognitiveperspectives(schemas,forexample)

Knowledgeisacquiredbytransforming,organizing,andreorganizing
previousknowledge

Piagettypicalofpsychologicalconstructivists

Constructionisarationalprocessgeneratingincreasinglycomplex
reasoningasinPiagetssequenceofdevelopmentalstages

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Radical Constructivism

Theextremeofpsychologicalconstructivism:nobasisforevaluatingor
interpretinganybeliefisanybetterorworsethananyother

Knowledgeconstructedlargelybyinterpersonalinteractionsand
constraintsofcultureandideology

NOTamirrorofexternalworld,becauseoftheseinteractionsand
limitations

Consistentwithpostmodernism,postmodernistcritiquesofAmerican
education

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Social Constructivism

DrawsonVygotskysnotionthatlearningisinherentlysocial,embeddedin
culturalsetting

Socialinteraction,culturaltools,andactivityshapeindividualdevelopment
andlearning

Allhigherordermentalprocesses,suchasreasoningandproblemsolving,
aremediatedbypsychologicaltools,suchaslanguage,signs,andsymbols.

Knowledge,ideas,attitudes,andvaluesdevelopthroughappropriating
thewaysofactingandthinkingprovidedbytheculture

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

How is Knowledge Constructed?

1. Therealitiesandtruthsoftheexternalworlddirect
knowledgeconstructionInformationProcessing
2. Internalprocessessuchasorganization,
assimilation,andaccommodationdirectknowledge
constructionPiaget
3. Bothexternalandinternalfactorsdirectknowledge
constructionVygotsky

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Situated Learning
DrawsontheVygotskysnotionthatlearningisinherently
social,embeddedinculturalsetting
Describedasenculturation,oranormingprocess:individuals
adoptthenorms,behaviors,skills,beliefs,language,and
attitudesofacommunity
Learningpreparesforparticipationinthatcommunity,
whateveritmaybe
Emphasizesthatmuchoflearningissituationspecific;
therefore,studentslearnskillsandknowledgeinmeaningful
contextswithclearconnectionstoreallifeapplications

W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Teaching Applications

Someguidingprinciplesforteaching:

Employmultiplestrategies,diversecontextsforlearning
Embedproblemsinauthentictasksthatrequirestudentstoapplywhat
theyarelearning
Createenvironmentofthinking,problemsolving,dialogue,openness,and
tolerance
Keepstudentsideasandresponsesatthecenterofinstruction

Commontechniquesconsistentwithconstructivism:

Inquirylearning:teacherpresentspuzzlingproblemorquestionand
studentsorganizehypotheses,datacollectionandanalysis
Cognitiveapprenticeships:studentsobserveexperts,receivecoaching,
practicetogainproficiency,reflectonprogress,andexplorenew
approachestocognitivetasks
Cooperativelearning:workingwithothersenhanceslearningby
requiringstudentstoelaborate,interpret,explain,argue,andcoordinate
informationandprocedureswithothers(jigsawandscriptedcooperation
aretwoexamplesofsuchtechniques
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011

Practical Imperatives

Ensurethatpositiveactionsarerecognizedandrewarded:Reinforcementstrengthensbehavior.
Accompanyallpunishmentwithrewardsforcorrectbehavior:Emphasizethepositive.
Understandthefunctionofnegativebehavior:Helpstudentsreachtheirgoalsthroughpositive
actionsinstead.
Matchinstructiontolearninggoals:Directteachingisusefulwhenstudentshavelimited
knowledge,
Helpstudentsfocusattentiononthebigideas:Learningisdifficultwhenyoudontknowwhatis
important.
Avoidoverwhelmingworkingmemory:Extraneouscognitiveloadlimitslearning.
Buildknowledgeinlongtermmemorybymakingmanyconnections:Deeplyprocessedand
elaboratedinformationiseasiertoremember.
Teachmemoryandlearningstrategiesdirectly:Withoutguidancesomestudentswillnever
masterpowerfulstrategies.
Createsituationsinwhichstudentsactivelyconstructmeaning:Toinventistounderstand.
Positionstudentsatthecenteroflearning:Buildonthetheirknowledgeandinterests.
Provideauthenticproblemsasalaunchingpadforlearning:Usefulknowledgegrowsfrom
solvingreallifechallenges.
Buildcollaborativeskillsamongstudentsandfaculty:Cooperationleadstorespectandcritical
thinking.
W. K. Hoy 2003, 2008, 2011