ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES
EE001-3-0

Introduction to Electronic
fundamentals
Lecture 5

Basic Semiconductor Physics

Electronic devices such as diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits are made of semiconductor
materials.
To understand how these devices work, we need a
basic knowledge of the atoms structure and the interaction
of
atomic particles.
An important concept introduced in this chapter is that of
the p-n junction that is formed when two different types of
semiconductor material are joined.
p-n junction is fundamental to the operation of devices
such as diode and certain types of transistor.
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Semiconductors
Semiconductors
All materials are made up of atoms.
These atoms contribute to the electrical properties
of a material, including its ability to conduct
electrical current.
For purposes of discussing electrical properties, an
atom can be represented by the valence shell and a
core that consists of all the inner shells and the
nucleus.
This concept is illustrated in figure 6.3 for a
carbon atom.
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Semiconductors

Fig.6.3 Carbon atom

Carbon is used in many types of resistors.

Notice that the carbon atom has four electrons in the valence
shell and two electrons in the inner shell (K).
The nucleus consists of six protons and six neutrons so the +6
indicates the positive charge of the 6 protons.
The simplified representation shows the four valence electrons
and a core with a net charge of +4 (6 for the nucleus and -2 for
the two inner shell electrons).
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Conductors
Conductors
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical
current.
The best conductors are single element materials, such
as copper, silver, gold, and aluminum, which are
characterized by atoms with only one valence electron
very loosely bound to the atom.
These loosely bound valence electrons can easily break
away from their atoms and become free electrons.
Therefore, a conductive material has many free
electrons that, when moving in a net direction, make up
the current.

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Insulators
Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct
electrical current under normal conditions.
Most good insulators are compounds rather than
single element materials.
Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms;
therefore, there are very few free electrons in an
insulator.
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Basic Semiconductor physics

Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors
and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.
A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a
good conductor nor a good insulator.
The most common single element semiconductors are
silicon, germanium, and, carbon.
Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are
also commonly used.
The single element semiconductors are characterized by
atoms with four valence electrons.
For a semiconductor material if the temperature is
increased the resistance will decrease since it has negative
temperature coefficient.
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Intrinsic semiconductor
An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities.
Conduction in semiconductor
An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room
temperature derives heat (thermal) energy from
the surrounding air, causing some valence
electrons to gain sufficient energy to jump the gap
from the valence band into the conduction band,
becoming free electrons not bound to any one
atom but free drift.
Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons.

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Conduction in semiconductor
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is
left in the valence band.
This vacancy is called a hole.
For every electron raised to the conduction band by external
energy, there is a hole left in the valence band, creating what is
called an electron-hole pair.
Recombination occurs when a conduction band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
To summarize, a piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature
has, at any instant, a number of conduction-band free electrons
that are unattached to any atom and there are essentially drifting
randomly throughout the material.
There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band
created when these electrons jump into the conduction band.
This is illustrated in Figure 6.6.
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Electron Hole-pair generation

Fig.6.6 Electron Hole-pair generation

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Electron &Hole current

Electron and hole current
When a voltage is applied across a piece of
intrinsic silicon, as shown in figure 6.7.

Fig 6.7 Electron & Hole current

The thermally generated free electrons in the

conduction band, are now easily attracted
toward the positive end.
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Electron &Hole current

This movement of free electrons is one type of
current in a semiconductor material and is called
electron current.
Another type of current occurs at the valence
level, where the holes created by the free electrons
exist.
Electrons remaining in the valence band are still
attached to their atoms and are not free to move
randomly in the crystal structure as are the free
electrons.
However, a valence electron can move into nearby
hole, with little change in its energy level, thus
leaving another hole where it came from.
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Electron &Hole current

Effectively the hole has moved from one place to
another in the crystal structure, as illustrated in figure
6.8. This is called a hole current.

Fig6.8 Electron and hole movement

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N-type and P-type semiconductor

n-type and p-type semiconductor
The conductivity of silicon and germanium can be
drastically increased by the controlled addition of
impurities (pure) semiconductor material.
This process, called doping, increases the number
of current carriers (electrons or holes), thus
increasing the conductivity and decreasing the
resistivity.
The two categories of impurities are n-type and ptype.
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N-type and P-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor
To increase the number of conduction band electrons
in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent impurity atoms are
added.
These are atoms with five valence electrons such as
arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb).
As illustrated in Figure 6.9, each pentavalent atom
(antimony in this case) forms covalent bonds with
four adjacent silicon atoms.
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N-type

Fig 6.9 n-type semiconductor

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N-type
Four of the antimony atoms valence electrons are used
to form the covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving
one extra electron.
This extra electron becomes a conduction electron
because it is not attached to any atom.
Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it
is often called a donor atom.
The number of conduction electrons can be carefully
controlled by the number of impurity atoms added to
the silicon.
A conduction electron created by this doping process
does not leave a hole in the valence band because it is
excess of the number required to fill the valence band.
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P-type
P-type semiconductor
To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon,
trivalent impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with three electrons such as
aluminum (Al), boron (B), indium (In), and gallium
(Ga).
As illustrated in Figure 6.10, each trivalent atom
(boron, in this case) forms covalent bonds with four
adjacent silicon atoms.
All three of the boron atoms valence electrons are
used in the covalent bonds; and since, four electrons
are required, a hole results when each trivalent atom is
added.
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P-type

Fig 6.10 p-type semiconductor

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P-type
Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it
is often referred to as an atom.
The number of holes can be carefully controlled
by the number of trivalent impurity atoms added
to the silicon.
A hole created by this doping process is not
accompanied by a conduction (free) electron.
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PN- junction diode

The p-n junction
A p-type material consists of silicon atoms and
trivalent impurity atoms such as boron.
The boron atom adds a hole when it bonds with
the silicon atoms.
However, since the number of protons and the
number of electrons are equal throughout the
material, there is no net charge in the material and
so it is neutral.
An n-type silicon material consists of silicon
atoms and pentavalent impurity atoms such as
antimony.
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PN- junction diode

As it is seen earlier, an impurity atom releases an
electron when it bonds with four atoms.
Since there is still an equal number of protons and
electrons throughout the material, there is no net
charge in the material and so it is neutral.
If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half is
n-type and the other half is p-type, a pn-junction
forms between the two regions as indicated in
Figure 6.10.
The p region has many holes.
The n region has many free electrons.
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PN- junction diode

Fig 6.10 Formation of pn junction

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Depletion region
Formation of the depletion region
The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting
in all directions.
At the instant of the pn junction formation, the free
electrons near the junction in the n region begin to
diffuse across the junction into the p region where they
combine with holes near the junction, as shown in
Figure 6.11(a).
Before the pn junction is formed, recall that there are as
many electrons as protons in the n-type material making
neutral in terms of net charge.
The same is true for the p-type material.

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Depletion region

Fig 6.11 Formation of repletion region

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Depletion region
When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses
free electrons as they diffuse across the junction.
As the electrons move across the junction, the p
region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine.
This creates a layer of negative charges near the
junction.
These two layers of positive and negative charges
form the depletion region, as shown in figure
6.11(b).
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Depletion region
Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed
very quickly and is very thin compared to the n
region and p region.
The width of the depletion region in figure 6.11 is
exaggerated for purposes of illustration.

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Diode concepts

Barrier potential
Barrier potential
Any time there is a positive charge and a negative
charge near each other, there is a force acting on the
charges as described by Coulombs law.
In the depletion region there are many positive charges
and many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn
junction.
The forces between the opposite charges form field of
forces called an electric field.
This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the
n region, and energy must be expended to move an
electron through the electric field.
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Barrier potential
That is, external energy must be applied to get the electrons to
move across the barrier of the electric field in the depletion
region.
The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion
region is the amount of energy required to move electrons
through the electric field.
This potential difference is called as barrier potential and is
expressed in volts.
The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several factors,
including the type of semiconductor material, the amount of
doping, and the temperature.
Typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7V for silicon and
0.3V for germanium at 25C.
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Barrier potential

Biasing the PN junction

Forward bias

Reverse bias

Figure 6.12 Biasing pn junction

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Forward biasing
Forward bias
To bias a pn junction, apply an external dc voltage across it.
Forward bias is the condition that allows current through a
pn junction.
Figure 6.13 shows a dc voltage source connected by
conductive material across a pn junction in the direction to
produce forward bias.
This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS.
Notice that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n
region and positive side is connected to the p region.
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Forward biasing

Figure 6.13 Forward biasing a pn junction diode

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Forward biasing
This is one of the requirement for forward bias.
A second requirement is that the VBIAS must be greater than
the barrier potential.
A fundamental picture of what happens when a pn
junction is forward biased is shown in Figure 6.14.
Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias
voltage source pushes the free electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the n region, towards the pn junction.
This flow of free electrons is called electron current.
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Forward biasing

Figure 6.14 Forward biasing pushes the electrons

to the pn junction
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Forward biasing
The effect of forward bias on the depletion region
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of
positive ions is reduced.
As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the
other side of the pn junction, the number of negative ions is
reduced.
This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias
causes the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in Figure 6.15.

Figure 6.15 Effect of forward bias

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Forward biasing
Effect of the barrier potential during forward bias
When forward bias applied, the free electrons are provided with
enough energy from the bias voltage source to overcome the
barrier potential and effectively climb the energy hill and cross
the depletion region.
The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the
depletion region is equal to the barrier potential.
This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn junction
equal to the barrier potential as shown in figure 6.15(b).
An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n
regions due to the internal resistance of the material.
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Reverse bias
As illustration of what happens when pn junction is reversebiased is shown in figure 6.16.
Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n
region of the pn junction and the negative side is connected
to the p region.
Also note that the depletion region is shown wider than in
forward bias or equilibrium.
Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias
voltage source pull the free electrons, which are the
majority carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction.
In the n region, as the electrons flow toward the positive side
of the voltage source, additional positive ions are created.
This results in a widening of the depletion region.
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Reverse bias

Figure 6.16 Effect of reverse bias

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Reverse bias
In the p region, electrons from the negative side
of the voltage source enter as valence electrons
and move from hole to hole toward the depletion
region where they create additional negative
ions.
This results in a widening of the depletion region
and a depletion of majority carriers.
The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as
holes being pulled toward the positive side.
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Reverse current
Reverse current
The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after
the transition current dies out is caused by the minority
carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.
The small number of free minority electrons in the p region
are pushed toward the pn junction by the negative bias
voltage.
When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they
fall down the energy hill and combine with the minority
holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward
the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.

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Reverse current
The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level
than the conduction band in the n region.
Therefore, the minority electrons easily pass through the
depletion region because they require no additional energy.
Reverse current is illustrated in figure 6.17

Figure 6.17
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Current-voltage characteristic
Current-voltage characteristic of a PN junction
When a forward bias voltage is applied across a silicon pn
junction, there is current through the junction.
This current is called the forward current and is
designated IF.
Figure 6.18 illustrates what happens as the forward bias
voltage is increased positively from 0V.
The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value
that will not overheat the pn junction and cause damage.
With 0V across the pn junction, there is no forward current,
as indicated in figure 6.18(a).
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Current-voltage characteristic
As the bias voltage is gradually increased, the forward current and
the voltage across the pn junction gradually increase, as shown in
part (b).
A portion of the applied bias voltage is dropped across the limiting
resistor.
When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value the voltage
across the pn junction reaches approximately 0.7V, the forward
current begins to increase rapidly.
As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues
to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the pn junction
increases very gradually above 0.7V, as illustrated in figure 6.18(c).
This small increase in the pn junction voltage above the barrier
potential is due to the dynamic resistance.
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Current-voltage characteristic

(a
)

(b
)

(c
)

Figure 6.18 current-voltage measurement of a diode

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Current-voltage characteristic /
forward bias plot
Graphing the I-V curve
If the results of the type of measurement shown in Figure 6.19
are plotted on a graph, you get the I-V characteristic curve for a
forward biased pn junction, as shown in Figure 6.19(a).
The forward current IF values increase upward along the vertical
axis and the pn junction forward voltage VF values increased to
the right along the horizontal axis.
As you can see in Figure 6.19(a), the forward current increases
very little until the forward voltage across the junction reaches
approximately 0.7V at the knee of the curve.
After this point, the forward voltage remains at 0.7V, but I F
increases rapidly.
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Current-voltage characteristic /
forward bias plot

Figure 6.19 Forward bias curve

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Current-voltage characteristic
Normal operation for a forward biased pn junction is above the
knee of the curve.
The IF scale is typically in mA.
The three points A, B, and C shown on the curve in Figure
6.19(a), can be related to the measurements in figure 6.18.
Point A corresponds to Figure 6.19(a), which is a zero bias
condition.
Point B corresponds to figure 6.19(a) where the forward
voltage is less than the barrier potential of 0.7V.
Point C corresponds to figure 6.19 (a)where the forward
voltage approximately equals the barrier potential and the
external bias voltage and forward current have continued to
increase.

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Dynamic resistance
Dynamic resistance
Unlike a linear resistance, the resistance of the forwardbiased pn material is not constant over the entire curve.
Because the resistance as you move along the I-V curve,
it is called dynamic or AC resistance.
This dynamic resistance is designated rd.
VF
rd
I F
'

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6.2

Reverse bias
I-V characteristic for reverse bias
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a pn junction,
there is only an extremely small reverse current IR through
the junction.
Figure 6.20 illustrates what happens as the reverse bias
voltage is increased negatively from 0V.
With 0V across the pn junction, there is no reverse current.
As you gradually increase the reverse bias voltage, there is a
very small reverse current and the voltage across the pn
junction increases, as shown in figure 6.20(a).
When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where
the reverse voltage across the pn junction VR reaches the
breakdown value VBR, the reverse current begins to increase
rapidly.

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Reverse bias measurements

(a
)

(b
)

Figure 6.20 Reverse bias measurements

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Reverse bias measurements

As you continue to increase the bias voltage, the current
continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the
pn junction increases very little above VBR, as illustrated in
figure 6.20(b).
Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode of
operation for most pn junction devices.
If the results of the type of measurements shown in figure
1.9, are plotted on a graph, you get the I-V characteristic
curve for a reverse biased pn junction.
A typical curve is shown in figure 6.21.
As you can see, there is very little reverse current (usually
A or nA) until the reverse voltage across the junction
reaches approximately the breakdown value.

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Reverse bias plot

Figure 6.21 Reverse bias curve

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Temperature effect
After this point, the reverse voltage remains at
approximately VBR, but IR increases very rapidly resulting in
overheating and possible damage.
Temperature effects on the I-V characteristic
For a forward bias pn junction, as temperature is increased,
the forward current increases for a given value of forward
voltage.
Also, for a given value of forward current, the forward
voltage decreases.
This is shown with the I-V characteristic curves in figure
6.22.
The red curve is at temperature 25C and the blue curve is at
an elevated temperature (25C +T).
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V-I plot

Figure 6.22 Effect of temperature on the v-i curve

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Rectification
The process of obtaining unidirectional
currents and voltages from alternating
currents and voltages is called
rectification. Automatic switching in
circuits is carried out by diodes.

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Half wave rectification

Using a single diode, as shown in Figure 6.23,
half-wave rectification is obtained.
When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q,
diode D is switched on and current i flows. When
P is negative with respect to Q, diode D is
switched off.
Transformer T isolates the equipment from
direct connection with the mains supply and
enables the mains voltage to be changed.
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Half wave rectification

Figure 6.23
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Full wave rectification

Two diodes may be used as shown in Figure 6.24 to
obtain full wave rectification. A centre-tapped
transformer T is used.
When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q,
diode D1 conducts and current flows (shown by the
broken line in Figure 6.24).
When S is positive with respect to Q, diode D2
conducts and current flows (shown by the continuous
line in Figure 6.24).
The current flowing in R is in the same direction for
both half cycles of the input. The output waveform is
thus as shown in Figure 6.24.
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Full wave rectification

Figure 6.24
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Bridge rectifier
Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit,
as shown in Figure 6.25 to obtain full wave
rectification.
As for the rectifier shown in Figure 6.24, the current
flowing in R is in the same direction for both half
cycles of the input giving the output waveform
shown.
To smooth the output of the rectifiers described
above, capacitors having a large capacitance may be
connected across the load resistor R.
The effect of this is shown on the output in Figure
6.26.
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Bridge rectifier

Figure 6.25
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Bridge rectifier

Figure 6.26
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TRANSISTORS

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Transistors
The bipolar junction transistor consists of three regions of
semiconductor material.
One type is called a p-n-p transistor, in which two regions of
p-type material sandwich a very thin layer of n-type material.
A second type is called an n-p-n transistor, in which two
regions of n-type material sandwich a very thin layer of p-type
material.
Both of these types of transistors consist of two p-n junctions
placed very close to one another in a back-to-back
arrangement on a single piece of semiconductor material.
Diagrams depicting these two types of transistors are shown in
Figure 6.27

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Transistors
The two p-type material regions of the p-n-p transistor are
called the emitter and collector and the n-type material is
called the base.
Similarly, the two n-type material regions of the n-p-n
transistor are called the emitter and collector and the p-type
material region is called the base, as shown in Figure 6.27.

Figure 6.27
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Transistors
Transistors have three connecting leads and in
operation an electrical input to one pair of
connections, say the emitter and base connections can
control the output from another pair, say the collector
and emitter connections.
This type of operation is achieved by appropriately
biasing the two internal p-n junctions.
When batteries and resistors are connected to a p-n-p
transistor, as shown in Figure 6.28(a), the base-emitter
junction is forward biased and the base-collector
junction is reverse biased.
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Transistors
Similarly, an n-p-n transistor has its base-emitter junction
forward biased and its base-collector junction reverse biased
when the batteries are connected as shown in Figure 6.28(b).

Figure 6.28
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Transistors
For a silicon p-n-p transistor, biased as shown in
Figure 6.28(a), if the base-emitter junction is
considered on its own, it is forward biased and a
current flows.
This is depicted in Figure 6.29(a). For example, if RE
is 1000 ohm, the battery is 4.5V and the voltage drop
across the junction is taken as 0.7 V, the current
flowing is given by 4.5- 0.7/1000 = 3.8mA.

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Transistors
When the base-collector junction is considered on its
own, as shown in Figure 6.29(b), it is reverse biased
and the collector current is something less than 1 A.
However, when both external circuits are connected
to the transistor, most of the 3.8mA of current flowing
in the emitter, which previously flowed from the base
connection, now flows out through the collector
connection due to transistor action.

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Transistors

Figure 6.29
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Transistors operation
In a p-n-p transistor, connected as shown in Figure
6.28(a), transistor action is accounted for as follows:
(a) The majority carriers in the emitter p-type
material are holes
(b) The base-emitter junction is forward biased to the
majority carriers and the holes cross the junction and
appear in the base region
(c) The base region is very thin and is only lightly
doped with electrons so although some electron-hole
pairs are formed, many holes are left in the base
region
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Transistors operation
(d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased to
electrons in the base region and holes in the collector
region, but forward biased to holes in the base region;
these holes are attracted by the negative potential at
the collector terminal
(e) A large proportion of the holes in the base region
cross the base collector junction into the collector
region, creating a collector current; conventional
current flow is in the direction of hole movement.

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Transistors operation
The transistor action is shown diagrammatically
in Figure 6.30.
For transistors having very thin base regions, up
to 99.5% of the holes leaving the emitter cross the
base collector junction.

Figure 6.30
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Transistors operation
In an n-p-n transistor, connected as shown in
Figure 6.28(b), transistor action is accounted
for as follows:
(a)The majority carriers in the n-type emitter
material are electrons
(b) The base-emitter junction is forward biased
to these majority carriers and electrons cross
the junction and appear in the base region
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Transistors operation
(c) The base region is very thin and only lightly
doped with holes, so some recombination with
holes occurs but many electrons are left in the
base region
(d) The base-collector junction is reverse biased to
holes in the base region and electrons in the
collector region, but is forward biased to electrons
in the base region; these electrons are attracted by
the positive potential at the collector terminal

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Transistors operation
(e) A large proportion of the electrons in the base
region cross the base collector junction into the
collector region, creating a collector current.
The transistor action is shown diagrammatically in
Figure 6.31. As stated in earlier section conventional
current flow is taken to be in the direction of hole
flow, that is, in the opposite direction to electron flow,
hence the directions of the conventional current flow
are as shown in Figure 6.31.

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Transistors operation

Figure 6.31
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Transistors operation
For a p-n-p transistor, the base-collector junction is
reverse biased for majority carriers.
However, a small leakage current, ICBO flows from the
base to the collector due to thermally generated minority
carriers (electrons in the collector and holes in the base),
being present. The base-collector junction is forward
biased to these minority carriers.
If a proportion, , (having a value of up to 0.995 in
modern transistors), of the holes passing into the base
from the emitter, pass through the base collector junction,
then the various currents flowing in a p-n-p transistor are
as shown in Figure 6.32(a).
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Transistors operation
Similarly, for an n-p-n transistor, the base-collector
junction is reversed biased for majority carriers, but a
small leakage current, ICBO flows from the collector to
the base due to thermally generated minority carriers
(holes in the collector and electrons in the base),
being present.
The base-collector junction is forward biased to these
minority carriers.
If a proportion, , of the electrons passing through the
base-emitter junction also pass through the basecollector junction then the currents flowing in an n-pn transistor are as shown in Figure 6.32(b).
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Transistors operation

Figure 6.32
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Transistor symbols
Symbols are used to represent p-n-p and n-p-n
transistors in circuit diagrams and are as shown in
Figure 6.33.
The arrow head drawn on the emitter of the symbol is
in the direction of conventional emitter current (hole
flow).
The potentials marked at the collector, base and
emitter are typical values for a silicon transistor
having a potential difference of 6V between its
collector and its emitter.
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Transistor symbols

Figure 6.33
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Transistor symbols
The voltage of 0.6V across the base and emitter
is that required to reduce the potential barrier
and if it is raised slightly to, say, 0.62 V, it is
likely that the collector current will double to
about 2 mA.
Thus a small change of voltage between the
emitter and the base can give a relatively large
change of current in the emitter circuit; because
of this, transistors can be used as amplifiers.
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Transistor connections
There are three ways of connecting a transistor, depending
on the use to which it is being put.
The ways are classified by the electrode that is common
to both the input and the output. They are called:
(a) common-base configuration, shown in Figure 6.34(a)
(b) common-emitter configuration, shown in Figure
6.34(b)
(c) common-collector configuration, shown in Figure
6.34(c)
These configurations are for an n-p-n transistor.
The current flows shown are all reversed for a p-n-p
transistor.
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Transistor connections

Figure 6.34

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Relation between IE,IC & IB

The various current components that flow within a transistor are:

The emitter current IE.
The base current IB.
The collector current IC.
IE = IB +IC
Emitter to collector current gain d.c is the ratio of collector
current to emitter current

d .c

IC

IE

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(6.3)

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Relation between IE,IC & IB

Substituting for IE=IC+IB in equation (6.3)
IC
we get
(6.4)
d .c
IC I B

d .c

IB
1
IC

d .c

(6.5)

1
1

(6.6)

d .c

IC
Where d .c is the base to collector gain, d .c I
B
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Relation between IE,IC & IB

Rearranging equation (6.6) we get
d .c

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d .c
1 d .c

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(6.7)

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