ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

DEPARTMENT PHYSIOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA

OBEJECTIVE
Explanation of Hormones Characteristic
and Fungtion
Explanation of Hormone receptors
Explanation
secretion

of

regulation

hormone

Comparison of Nervous and

Endocrine Systems
Nervous

Endocrine

electrochemical

hormone
(chemical)

response

milliseconds

seconds to days

duration

short-lived

long-lived

one system (several

subsystems)

widely scattered

messenger

distribution

NOTE: Nervous and endocrine systems work together to coordinate and

integrate activities of body (homeostasis)

Hormones Characteristic and Function

The endocrine system is one of the bodys
two major communication systems, the
nervous system being the other.
The endocrine system consists of all those
glands,

termed

secrete hormones.

endocrine

glands,

that

Hormones

chemicals
secreted by endocrine gland cells into blood
(by way of interstitial fluid)
regulate metabolic functions of other cells
(called target cells)
carried to all cells, but action is specific to
cells that have receptors for the hormone
specificity of bodys response to hormone
depends on how many cells have the receptor
(highly specific if few cells respond [e.g., ACTH];
diffuse action if many respond [e.g., thyroxine])

Chemical Types of Hormones

Amino-acid based (amino acids, short or long
peptides, proteins)
e.g., insulin, growth hormone, prolactin

Steroids - lipid derivatives of cholesterol

e.g., hormones from gonads (testosterone,
estrogen)
e.g., hormones from adrenal cortex (adrenocortical
hormones)

Eicosanoids - locally-secreted, locally-acting

hormones secreted by all cell membranes
(e.g., prostaglandins, which increase blood
pressure and contribute to uterine contraction)

Functions of Endocrine System

1.Reproduction
2.Growth and development
3.Response to stress
4.Maintenance of fluid (water), electrolyte and
nutrient balance(insulin, glukagon)
5.Regulation of cellular metabolism and
energy(tiroid, paratiroid hormon, T3,T4)

Hormone Receptors

Mechanisms of Action
action in target cell depends on receptor
receptor may be:
in plasma membrane
second messenger mechanisms
used by most amino acid-based hormones (water
soluble)

intracellular (in cytoplasm or nucleus)

direct gene activation
used by steroids and thyroid hormones (lipid
soluble)

Mechanisms of Action: Steroids

bind to intracellular receptors
hormone diffuses through plasma membrane
and makes its way to nucleus
> where it binds with intracellular receptor to form
hormone-receptor complex
> hormone-receptor complex interacts with
chromatin (DNA) to affect gene activity (turn genes
on or off)
> synthesis of mRNA
> synthesis of protein

Steroid Signaling

Mechanism of Action:
Thyroid Hormone
similar to mechanism for steroid hormones
diffuses across plasma membrane
diffuses into nucleus where it interacts with
intracellular receptors to activate genes for
proteins (enzymes) involved in cellular respiration
(glycolysis)
also, binds to receptors at mitochondria to activate
genes for proteins involved in cellular respiration
(Krebs cycle and electron transport chain)

Mechanisms of Action:
Other Hormones
* plasma membrane receptor
used by most amino acid-based hormones
interaction of hormone with plasma
membrane receptor results in activation of
second messenger systems (cyclic AMP or
PIP-calcium)
activation of second messenger has cascade
effect resulting in:
enzyme activation, or
membrane permeability changes or secretion

Membrane Receptor Mechanisms:

1. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) Signaling
interaction of hormone with receptor
> activates G protein (cleaves phosphate from
GTP)-> excitation
> G protein activates adenylate cyclase
> adenylate cyclase forms cAMP from ATP
> cAMP activates protein kinases
> protein kinases activate (or inhibit) other
proteins by phosphorylation
> cAMP degraded by enzyme

slightly different G protein inactivates

adenylate cyclase - associated with
different hormone receptor

cAMP Signaling Mechanism

Membrane Receptor Mechanisms:

2. PIP-Calcium Signaling
interaction of hormone with receptor -->
activates membrane-bound enzyme
phospholipase
> phospholipase cleaves PIP2 (phosphatidyl
inositol diphosphate) into diacylglycerol (DAG) and
IP3 -- each of which acts as a second messenger
diacylglycerol (DAG) activates protein kinases
IP3 (inositol triphosphate) causes release of Ca2+ into
cytoplasm (from endoplasmic reticulum or other storage
areas) --> Ca2+ acts as third messenger

PIP-Calcium Mechanism (cont)

-> Ca2+ (third messenger)
changes enzyme activity and plasma
membrane channels, or
binds to calmodulin (intracellular regulatory
protein) --> activates enzymes

PIP-Calcium Signaling Mechanism

Factors Affecting Target Cell

Activation
a. blood levels of hormone, which depend on:
rate of hormone release
rate of deactivation (by target cell or liver)

b. affinity of hormone for receptor

greater affinity means greater association -->
greater effect

c. number of receptors available

Factors Affecting Target Cell

Activation (cont)
c. number of receptors available
up-regulation: increase in blood level of specific
hormone (normally present at low levels) causes cells to
make more receptors
down-regulation: prolonged exposure to high level of
specific hormone --> cells remove some receptors

-->return to normal response level

cross-regulation: influence of one hormone on number
of receptors for another hormone; e.g., progesterone
causes uterus to make fewer estrogen receptors;
estrogen causes uterus to make more progesterone
receptors (1 reseptor untuk 2 hormon berbeda)

Regulation Hormone Secretion

Control of Hormone Release

Humoral control
Neural control cth : katekolamin
Hormonal control cth: hormon
: hormon tiroid, koreteks adrenal, gonad

Control of Hormone Release: Humoral

Hormone released in response to changing blood
levels of ion or nutrient (negative feedback)
parathyroid glands:
detects low blood Ca2+
PTH raises blood
Ca2

thyroid (parafollicular
cells) detect high blood
Ca2+-->calcitonin->decrease blood Ca2+

Control of Hormone Release: Humoral

Other examples:
pancreas:
beta cells detect high blood glucose insulin
decreases blood glucose
alpha cells detect low blood glucose
glucagon raises blood glucose

zona glomerulosa (of adrenal cortex)

detects low blood Na+ or high blood K+
aldosteronetthy, K+

Control of Hormone Release: Neural

Hormone released in response to nerve impulse
preganglionic
fibers of
sympathetic
division
stimulate release
of catecholamines
(epinephrine,
norepinephrine)
from adrenal
medulla

impulses from
hypothalamus
result in release of
oxytocin or ADH
from posterior
pituitary

Control of Hormone Release: Hormonal

Hormone produced by one endocrine gland (or
hypothalamus) affects secretion of hormone by
another endocrine gland
hypothalamus acts as overall coordinator
releases regulatory hormones (releasing
hormones or inhibitory hormones) affects
anterior pituitary
anterior pituitary, when stimulated, secretes
hormones that affect other glands (e.g., TSH
[thyroid stimulating hormone] stimulates release of
thyroid hormones from thyroid gland)

Hormonal Control: Role of Hypothalamus

Releasing hormones from hypothalamus

stimulate secretion from anterior pituitary

Inhibitory hormones from hypothalamus

inhibit secretion by anterior pituitary

Impulses from hypothalamus cause release

of hormones from posterior pituitary

Hormone Control - Misc.

nervous system can override normal endocrine
control
e.g., in fight-or-flight response, sympathetic
impulses result in release of epinephrine and
norepinephrine from adrenal medulla --> increases
blood glucose levels to maintain fuel supply during
stress or exertion (overrules effect of insulin on blood
glucose level)