Mechanical Design

Design representation:

enough information to

manufacture the part precisely

inspect the manufactured part

[geometry, dimensions, tolerances]

analyze the part/product behavior

Design models and data

Projections
Theoretical technique to map 3D objects to 2D

Dimensions
To assist machinist:
e.g. distance between centers of holes

Tolerances
imprecision in machining 
must specify the tolerance range
Importance of tolerances

What is a ‘good level of tolerance’?

Designer: tight tolerance is better

(less vibration, less wear, less noise)

Machinist: large tolerances is better

(easier to machine, faster to produce,

easier to assemble)

Tolerances  interchangeability
Tolerance and Concurrent Engineering

Why ?

Tolerance specification needs knowledge of

accuracy, repeatability of machines

process capability

…
Part 1. Projections

3D models:
expensive, difficult to make

Clay car model at GM

 need 2D representations

Representation must convey feasible 3D objects

Geometric Projections: history

Albrecht Durer’s machine [14??AD] (perspective map)

 Importance of perspective maps

1. Renaissance architects

Duomo, Florence, Italy Axonometric projection, Section view

source and interesting history: http://www.mega.it/eng/egui/monu/bdd.htm

2. Modern CAD systems

(a) 3D rendering, image processing

(b) Mathematics of free-form surfaces (NURBS)

Why perspective maps ?

Human sight and perception

larger, farther  same image size

same size, farther  smaller image
Perspective example

parallel lines converge to a point

The vanishing point (or station point)

Effect of vanishing point on perspective map

Image on the ‘picture plane’ is a perspective of the 3D object

[Is the object behind in perspective view ?]

Perspectives and vanishing points

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Perspectives in mechanical drafting Not good !

(1) parallel lines converge  misinterpreted by the machinist

(2) Views have too many lines

Orthographic views

A mapping where parallel lines remain parallel

How ?
Set the vanishing point at infinity

Another problem:

Back, Sides of object not visible (hidden surfaces)

Solution: Multiple views

Orthographic views..

Language of engineering communication

Orthographic views...

View direction selection in orthographics

Maximize true-size view of most faces

TOP

FRONT RIGHT
Isometric view: gives a ‘3D image’

each side has equal length

(a) orthograhic (b) top view rotated by 45° (c) Isometric projection
Different types of projections

All engineering drawings must be made to scale

Part 2. ANSI dimensioning

Datum: A theoretical geometric object

(point, line, axis, or plane) derived from
a specific part/feature of a datum feature on the part.

Uses:

(1) specify distance of a feature from the datum

(2) specify a geometric characteristic (e.g. straightness)

of a feature
ANSI dimensioning: definitions

Feature:
A geometric entity on the part, (hole, axis, plane, edge)

Datum feature:
An actual feature of a part, that is used to establish a datum.

Basic Dimension:
The theoretically exact size of a feature or datum
ANSI dimensioning: definitions..

Limits: The max/min allowable sizes

Largest allowable size: upper limit

Least allowable size: lower limit.

LMC (Least Material Condition)

MMC (Maximum material Condition)

Conventions for dimensioning

(a) Specify tolerance for all dimensions

(b) All necessary , sufficient dimensions

X over-dimensioned X
X under-dimensioned X

Reference dimensions:
Redundant dimensions, in ( …)

(c) Dimensions should be

(i) marked off the datum feature
(ii) shown in true-size view
(iii) shown in visible view
Example
Part 3. Mechanical Tolerancing

Conventional Tolerancing:

(a) Size of a feature

Specified by a basic size, and tolerance: 2.50±0.03

upper limit =

lower limit =

No of digits after decimal  precision

Conventional Tolerancing..

Unilateral and Bilateral Tolerances:

bilateral unilateral
+0.03 +0.04 +0.06 -0.00 -0.03
2.50 - 0.03 2.49 - 0.02 2.47 + 0.00 2.53 -0.06 2.56 -0.09
Conventional Tolerancing...

(b) The type of fit between mating features

Designer needs to specify

basic dia, tol of shaft: S±s/2

basic dia, tol of hole: H±h/2

Allowance: a = Dhmin – Dsmax

Standard fits

FIT Sub-Type a (allowance) h (hole tolerance) s (shaft tolerance)

Clearance Loose 0.0025d2/3 0.0025d1/3 0.0025d1/3

[easy assembly,
may vibrate in use]
Free 0.0014d2/3 0.0013d1/3 0.0013d1/3
Medium 0.0009d2/3 0.0018d1/3 0.0018d1/3
Transition Snug 0 0.0006d1/3 0.0004d1/3
[difficult to mfg
precision fit
Wringing 0 0.0006d1/3 0.0004d1/3

Interference Tight -0.00025d 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3

[difficult assembly
Medium Force -0.0005d 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3
can transmit torque] Shrink -0.001d 0.0006d1/3 0.0006d1/3
The hole-basic specification convention

[Holes are made by drills]

shaft hole

2.000
basic + basic +
h h s s
basic + size - size -
size -
a a a a

mean + mean +
s s h h
size - basic size -
size
hole basic hole basic hole basic shaft basic
unilateral tolerance bilateral tolerance unilateral tolerance bilateral tolerance
clearance fit clearance fit interference fit interference fit
Generalization of hole-basic/shaft-basic

MMC: Maximum material condition

LMC: Least material condition

Hole at MMC  at the lower limit

Hole at LMC  at the upper limit

 Geometric Tolerancing

Problems in Conventional tolerancing:

(a) Assumes perfect surfaces

(b) No use of Datums

(c) No specification of form tolerances

(d) X±t/2, Y±t/2  rectangular tolerance zone (cylindrical preferred)

max tol = t 2
t

X t
Datums

A theoretical feature (e.g. plane, line)

Serves as a global coordinate frame for the part

during different activities such as

design, manufacturing and inspection.

Each design must specify the datum planes

(or other datums)
 Datum feature

The actual plane on the part (imperfect)

corresponding to a (perfect) datum plane

datum feature A datum feature B

datum plane A datum plane B

datum B datum C

datum A

Sequence of establishing datums:

PRIMARY (3 points)  SECONDARY (2 points)  TERTIARY (1 point)
ANSI symbols for geometric tolerancing
Type of Tolerance Characteristic Symbol ANSI modification symbols

Straightness
MMC
M
Flatness
Regardless of feature size S
Form
Circularity
LMC
L
Cylindricity
Projected Tol Zone P
Line profile
Profile Diameter
Surface profile
Spherical Diameter
S
Angle
Radius R
Orientation Perpendicular
Spherical Radius
SR
Parallel
Reference size
( )
True Position
Arc length
Location
Concentricity

Circular runout
Runout
Total runout
Different allowed notations (ANSI)

3.00 basic size

-A- datum

0.001 M A M

symbol tolerance modifier datum modifier

0.001 A B C

symbol tolerance primary- secondary- tertiary datum

 Location tolerances

Conventional system:
rectangular tolerance zones

True Position Tolerancing

circular (cylindrical) tolerance zone
Form Tolerances
Form Tolerances..
Form Tolerances…
Form Tolerances….
Form Tolerances…..
Concluding remarks

- Design data must be shared  Engineering drawings

- Engineering drawings  Importance of geometry

- Tolerances  Functional need, Manufacturing interchangeability

- Tolerance specifications: Importance of Datums

THANK YOU